第四类 社会问题类 （下）

46. 工业化国家的失业

段落大意：工业化国家里，由于失业保险和其他收入形式，失业不再造成很大痛苦。稳定经济的手段使经济不景气的时间变短，程度变小。

In industrialized countries, with unemployment insurance and other forms of income maintenance, unemployment does not cause as great a hardship as it once did. Measures to stabilize the economy have made economic downturns (低迷) briefer and less severe. Workers are still threatened by long periods of unemployment, however, while some bear a disproportionate（不成比例的）working burden. The problem of modern governments is how to benefit from the economic flexibility and the rising productivity while reducing the number of unemployed workers, keeping their spells (时间段) of joblessness short, maintaining their income, and helping them return to work with viable (维持生计的) skills.

47. 政府对失业的干涉

段落大意：政府通过一系列法律来复苏经济，减少失业。

The enactment（颁布）of various laws aimed at reviving business and industrial activity resulted in a substantial improvement in American economic conditions as well as a decline in unemployment. Soon after the outbreak (爆发) of World War II in September 1939, the U.S. government launched a program for expanding and modernizing the national defense system. The program provided industry with a powerful stimulus (刺激), and unemployment rapidly declined. After the U.S. entered the war in December 1941, not only was the goal of full employment attained, but a shortage of labor substituted for the previous lack of available jobs.

48. 技术进步与失业

段落大意：由于担心技术进步会增加失业率，一些工人反对经济进步。然而节省劳力的技术进步，会增加工人产出，并提高其收入水平。

Fears that the introduction of automation（自动化） and other labor-saving technology would increase unemployment have led some workers to oppose such changes. Labor-saving methods, however, increase each worker’s output and make possible rising of worker’s income. In order to deal with the effects of technological change, the government passed several acts (法令), such as the Manpower Training and Development Act (1962), the Comprehensive Employment and Training Act (1973), and the Job Training Partnership Act (1982), to set up programs designed to train the unemployed with skills needed in seeking jobs.

49. 失业与通货膨胀

段落大意：当失业率下降，雇主无法找到合格工人，工资就会增长，造成生产成本增加，从而引发价格上涨，并由此引发通货膨胀。

A major policy issue is the relation between unemployment and inflation (通货膨胀). In theory, when high demand for labor coincides（同时发生） with low unemployment, employers find it difficult to hire qualified workers, which will cause wages to increase, push production costs and prices higher and thus contribute to inflation. On the other hand, when demand declines and unemployment increases, inflationary pressure on wages and production costs are relieved. However, the condition that both inflation and unemployment rates were high in the 1970s confounded（证伪）this theory. The government adopted policies to control inflation that involved reducing demand in the economy with rising unemployment as a cost of lowering inflation.

50. 通货紧缩的社会作用

段落大意：通货紧缩一般由经济产出减少和失业率上升而引起；低价会最终导致消费、投资和外贸等增长。

The specific effects of inflation（通货膨胀）and deflation（通货紧缩）are mixed and fluctuate（波动）over time. Deflation is typically caused by depressed economic output and high unemployment. Lower prices may eventually stimulate consumption, investment, and foreign trade, but only on condition that the fundamental causes of the original deterioration (恶化) are corrected.

51. 通货膨胀的正面社会后果

段落大意：通货膨胀最初会增加商业利润，导致更多资金投资、利率上涨、个人消费增加等。

Inflation initially increases business profits, as wages and other costs lag behind（落后于） price increases, leading to more capital investment and payments of dividends（红利） and interest. Personal spending may increase because of the worry that it will cost more in the future if they don’t buy it now. Potential real estate (房地产) value appreciation (增值) may attract buyers. Domestic inflation may temporarily improve trade because the same volume of exports can be sold at higher prices. Government expenditure (开支) rises because many programs are explicitly (清楚地), or informally, indexed（与生活指数挂钩）to inflation rates to preserve the real value of government services and transfers（转移）of income. Officials may also anticipate paying larger budgets with tax revenues from inflated incomes.

52. 通货膨胀的负面社会影响

段落大意：通货膨胀最终会损害正常经济活动。消费下降；股票和证券贬值；抵押贷款利率上升会拖慢住房建设；通货膨胀会削弱真实购买力，从而导致消费下降。

Despite some temporary gains, however, inflation eventually disrupts normal economic activities. Interest rates rise in accordance with the anticipated pace of inflation, which increase business costs, discourage consumer spending, and depress the value of stocks and bonds（债券）. Higher mortgage (抵押) interest rates and rapidly escalating (逐步升高) prices for homes discourage housing constructions. Inflation erodes（侵蚀）the real purchasing power with current incomes, which will result in reduced consumption, particularly if consumers are unable, or unwilling, to draw on (依赖) their savings or personal debts for support. Business investment suffers as overall economic activity declines, and profits are restricted as employees demand immediate relief from chronic inflation by invoking (援引) the automatic cost-of-living (生活费) escalator (自动上涨) clauses（条例）. Most raw materials and operating costs respond quickly to inflationary signals. Higher export prices eventually restrict foreign sales, creating deficits in trade and services and international currency-exchange problems. Inflation is a major element in the prevailing（主要的）pattern of booms and recessions（衰退）that cause unwanted price and employment distortions and widespread economic uncertainty.

53. 通货膨胀对个人的影响

段落大意：通货膨胀对个人的影响取决于多种因素。固定收入人群，尤其是低收入人群，会受到通货膨胀的负面影响；有灵活经济能力的人群会从通货膨胀中获益。

The impact of inflation on individuals depends on many variables（变数）. People with relatively fixed incomes, particularly those in low-income groups, suffer during accelerating inflation, while those with flexible economic power may adjust to or even benefit from inflation. Those dependent on assets with fixed nominal (名义上的) values, such as savings accounts, pensions, insurance policies, and long-term debts, suffer erosion of real wealth. Other assets with flexible values, such as real estate（房地产）, art, raw materials, and durable（持久性的） goods, may keep pace with or exceed the average inflation rate. Workers in the private sector (部门) strive for adjustments in wage contracts. Borrowers usually benefit while lenders suffer, because mortgage, personal, business, or government loans are paid with money whose value keeps depreciating over time and interest rates tend to lag behind (落后于) the average rate of price increases. A pervasive （普遍的）“inflationary psychology” eventually dominates private and public economic decisions.

54. 失业率与贫困

段落大意：即使是发达国家，失业率也会很高。高失业率导致高贫困率。

Even in developed countries, unemployment rates can be high, which can further lead to high level of poverty. Availability of employment also tends to fluctuate (波动), creating periods of high joblessness. Countries such as Japan, South Korea, Singapore, Switzerland, and Luxembourg have managed at times to keep unemployment as low as 2 percent. Unemployment figures during the 1990s in the United States and most of Europe, on the other hand, ranged from about 5 percent to more than 20 percent. In countries with high populations, unemployment rates of only a few percentage points mean that millions of working-age people cannot find work and earn adequate income. Since unemployment figures indicate the number of people who are eligible (合格的) to work and searching for jobs, such figures are not necessarily an accurate indicator of the number of people living in poverty. Some people may earn wages too low to provide for themselves and their families.

55. 人口过剩与贫困

段落大意：人口过剩与贫困关系密切。

Overpopulation, the situation of having large numbers of people with too few resources and too little space, is closely associated with poverty. It can result from high population density—the ratio（比率）of people to land area, usually expressed as numbers of persons per square kilometer or square mile—or from low amounts of resources, or from both. Excessively high population densities put stress on available resources. A given area of land can only support a certain number of people, and that number depends on how much food and other resources the land can provide. In countries where people live primarily by means of simple farming, gardening, herding（牧业）, hunting, and gathering, even large areas of land can support only small number of people because these labor-intensive subsistence（生计）activities produce only small amounts of food.

56. 贫困、人口密度与农业

段落大意：贫困程度取决于人口密度和农业产量。

A country’s level of poverty greatly depends on its population density and agricultural productivity. Bangladesh, for example, has one of the world’s highest population densities, with 1,078 persons per sq km (2,791 persons per sq mi). A large majority of the people in Bangladesh engage in manual farming with low-productivity, which contributes to the country’s extremely high level of poverty. Some of the smaller countries in Western Europe, such as the Netherlands and Belgium, have high population densities as well. These countries practice mechanized (机械化) farming and are involved in high-tech industries, however, and therefore have high living standards.

57. 发展中国家的高出生率问题

段落大意：发展中国家的高出生率导致人口过剩。对贫困家庭来说，孩子是财产，可以提供劳动力。

High birth rates contribute to overpopulation in many developing countries. Children are assets (资产) to many poor families because they provide labor, usually for farming. Cultural norms in rural communities commonly sanction (支持) the value of large families. Also, the governments of developing countries often provide little or no support, financial or political, for family planning. Even people who wish to keep their families small have difficulty doing so. For all these reasons, developing countries tend to have high rates of population growth.

58. 资源分配不均与贫困

段落大意：殖民主义导致了全球经济资源分配不均。在许多发展中国家，贫困问题普遍深入，但缺乏原材料和相关知识技能、缺少必要的基础设施等因素，限制了这些国家的脱贫。

Many experts agree that the legacy of colonialism（殖民主义）accounts for much of the unequal distribution of resources in the world economy. In many developing countries, the problems of poverty are massive and pervasive (普遍的). In recent decades most of these countries have tried to develop their economies by supporting industry and technology departments. Some nations have become fairly wealthy, including the Republic of Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, South Korea, and Thailand. Many developing countries, however, lack essential raw materials and the knowledge and skills which are obtained only by developed countries. They also often lack the necessary infrastructure（基础设施）, for example, transportation systems and power-generating facilities. Since these things are essential for the development of industry, developing countries generally must rely on trade with developed countries for manufactured goods. Nevertheless, they cannot afford much.

59. 当今的殖民主义

段落大意：当今，富裕的发达国家继续充当着殖民者的身份。发达国家的财富依赖于与发展中国家的优惠贸易。发达国家低价从发展中国家买进自然资源，并低价雇用劳动力。这些增加了发展中国家的依赖性，却没有提高它们的生活水平。

Some social scientists argue that wealthier developed countries continue to practice a form of colonialism, known as neocolonialism (新殖民主义), on developing countries. The affluence (富裕) of these countries is based to a large extent on favorable trade with the developing world. Developed countries have been able to get cheap natural resources from poorer countries in Asia, Africa, and Latin America, including oil for power, ores (矿石) and minerals (矿物) for manufacturing. Goods are made in developing countries by low-wage workers in local factories operated by multinational corporations. This practice contributes to the dependency of poorer countries while not raising their standards of living.

60. 教育与贫困

段落大意：文盲和缺乏教育现象在发展中国家很普遍。发展中国家无法提供好的公众教育，尤其是在乡村地区。

Illiteracy and lack of education are common in poor countries. Governments of developing countries often cannot provide good public schools, especially in rural areas. While virtually all children in industrialized countries can receive an education, only about 60 percent of children in sub-Saharan (撒哈拉沙漠以南的) Africa attend elementary school. Without education, most people cannot find decent work. Poor people also often forego (放弃) schooling in order to struggle a minimal living. In addition, developing countries tend to have fewer employment opportunities than developed ones, especially for women. As a result, people may further downplay (不予重视) schooling.

61. 贫困与经济趋势

段落大意：发达国家的贫困与经济趋势有关。

Poverty in many developed countries can be linked to economic trends. In the 1950s and 1960s, for example, most people in the United States experienced booming (激增的) income growth. Taking inflation into account, average family income almost doubled during this period. However, between the early 1970s and the early 1990s, typical incomes, adjusted for inflation, grew little while the cost of living increased. Periods of economic recession tend to particularly affect young and less-educated people, who may have difficulty finding jobs that pay enough to support themselves.

62. 贫困与个人责任

段落大意：一些人认为贫困是社会结构的产物，或者认为贫困来自社会机构的失败，如学校、劳动力市场等——这些人认为贫困与个人无关。而另一些人认为个人对贫困负有责任。

There are differing beliefs about individual responsibility for poverty. Some people believe that poverty is an inevitable proportion (部分) of the whole societal structure. Others feel that poverty results from a failure of social institutions, such as the labor market and schools. These people maintain that poverty is beyond the control of those who experience it, but might be remedied (矫正) if appropriate policies were enacted（颁布）. Other people feel that the poor behave in certain ways that cause or perpetuate (持续) their poverty. For instance, if people voluntarily choose to use drugs and thus step into poverty, they are to blame for their situation. However, such an argument cannot completely explain cases in which poverty leads to drug dependence.

63. 贫困与社会福利制度

段落大意：在发达国家，穷人完全依赖于社会福利制度而一直处于贫困状态，许多人指责这是导致贫困状态无法转变的原因。

Many people in developed countries blame cycles of poverty, or the tendency for the poor to remain poor, on overly generous welfare programs. Supporters of this position, including some politicians, argue against government spending and initiatives（计划）to help the poor. They believe that these programs provide continuous and steady payments and other support for the poor, which creates little incentives（激励）for them to escape from poverty. This argument also suggests that welfare discourages marriage. In the United States and other developed countries, when a single parent gets married, the welfare support he or she gets is reduced. On the other hand, cash welfare benefits for the typical poor U.S. family with dependent children fell in value by half between the early 1970s and the mid-1990s, taking inflation into account. Such benefits may have been too meager (薄弱的) to motivate people to get married.

64. 环境恶化与贫困

段落大意：自然环境的恶化是导致贫困的一大诱因。环境恶化会导致食物、净水等缺乏，直接依赖自然资源生存的人受害程度最大。

In many parts of the world, environmental degradation (恶化), the deterioration（恶化）of the natural environment, including the atmosphere, bodies of water, soil, and forests, is an important cause of poverty. Environmental problems have led to shortages of food, clean water, and other essential resources. As forests, land, air, and water are degraded, people whose lives largely depend on these natural resources suffer most from the effects. People in developed countries, on the other hand, have technologies and conveniences such as air and water filters (过滤器), refined（提炼）fuels, and industrially produced and stored foods to buffer（缓冲）themselves from the effects of environmental degradation.

65. 劳动力市场变化与贫困水平

段落大意：劳动力市场变化导致贫困水平增加。靠制造业相关手艺生存的人群的贫困水平会加重。

Changes in labor markets in developed countries have also contributed to increased poverty level. For instance, the number of relatively highly-paid manufacturing jobs has declined, while the demand for workers in service and technology-related industries has increased. Historically, people have learned the skills required for jobs that involve manual （手工的）labor, such as those in manufacturing, either on the job or through easily accessible school vocational programs. As these jobs are replaced by service and technology-related jobs which usually require skills taught at the college level, people who cannot afford college education find it increasingly difficult to obtain well-paying jobs.

66. 贫困的社会后果

段落大意：贫困会导致广泛而严重的社会后果，如营养不良、健康问题、新生儿死亡率上升、寿命下降、传染病蔓延、心理问题等。

Poverty has wide-ranging and often devastating (破坏性的) effects. Many of its effects result directly from having too little income or too few resources, such as malnutrition (营养不良) and physical health problems. These effects can further lead to higher infant mortality rates and lower life expectancies (平均寿命) among the poor. Other effects of poverty may include infectious (传染性的) disease, mental illness, and drug dependence. Poverty can also lead to other problems, though sometimes it is only partially true. For example, studies link poverty to crime, but by no means are all poor people criminals. In many cases, the primary effects of poverty lead to other problems. Extended hunger and lack of employment, for instance, may lead to depression, which may sometimes contribute to high criminal rate.

67. 贫困与犯罪

段落大意：贫困会导致犯罪和暴力行为。愤怒、绝望、无钱购买生活必需品会导致穷人犯罪。

Some experts believe that poverty leads people to commit acts of violence and crime. Anger, desperation, and the need of money for food, shelter, and other necessities may all contribute to criminal behavior among the poor. Other experts caution that the link of cause and effect (因果关系) between poverty and crime is unclear. In some cases, poverty undoubtedly（不可置疑地）motivates people to commit crimes, although it may not be the only factor involved. Other problems associated with poverty are often linked to crime. For example, to obtain money some poor people commit the crime of selling illegal drugs; others may steal to obtain the money to buy drugs on which they are dependent.

68. 贫困的长期影响

段落大意：在贫困的环境中长大会给孩子带来一些长期问题，如缺乏教育、生活会遇到更多困难等。

People who grow up in poverty may experience lifelong problems because of it. They are at a disadvantage in things such as education owing to limited income and resources. Children also need adequate nutrition and health care for good physical and mental development, and poor children are often malnourished（营养不良的）and sick from the formative (形成阶段的) age. Studies have shown that people who grow up in persistently（持续性的）poor households experience more difficulties throughout their lives than those raised in households that are above the poverty level. Overall, they do not do as well in school, have more difficulties in marriage, and more frequently become single parents. In addition, poverty tends to repeat itself. In many cases, those who had poor parents are poor themselves, earning lower-than-average incomes. They may have learned a mindset that keeps them from getting out of poverty. All of these negative long-term effects are much more likely to occur in those who have experienced prolonged poverty in childhood, because an unfortunate circumstance is more likely to affect the vulnerable (脆弱的) children.

69. 发展中国家对抗贫困

段落大意：大部分发展中国家提供的用于对抗贫困的资助非常有限。

The governments of most developing countries provide limited assistance to prevent some poverty. Most have at least minimal social security programs, which provide benefits during periods of unemployment, illness, disability, or retirement. These programs usually only support people who are employed full-time, which cover a very small percentage of the population in most developing countries. Some countries, such as Bangladesh and Nepal, provide mandatory full support only to government employees. A variety of organizations support antipoverty programs in developing countries. They include international government organizations, such as the UN, aid agencies run by developed countries, nongovernmental (mostly nonprofit) organizations, and private development banks.

70. 发达国家对发展中国家的援助

段落大意：发达国家对发展中国家提供援助。然而，有些人认为，金钱援助只会加剧发展中国家的贫困和社会不公现象。

Most developed nations give development aid to developing countries. The UN target for development aid is 0.7% of GDP, which currently has been achieved by only a few nations. Some think tanks (智囊团) and NGOs have argued, however, that Western monetary aid often only serves to increase poverty and social inequality, either because it is conditioned with the implementation of harmful economic policies in the recipient（接收方）countries, or because it’s tied with the importing of products from the donor country over cheaper alternatives（替代品）. Foreign aid is seen to be serving the interests of the donor more than the recipient. Critics also argue that some of the foreign aid is stolen by corrupt governments and officials, and that higher aid levels erode (侵蚀) the quality of governance. Policy makers become much more oriented toward（关注）getting more aid money than meeting the needs of the people. Supporters argue that these problems may be solved with better auditing (审计) of how the aid is used. Aid from non-governmental organizations may be more effective than governmental aid. This may be because NGOs are better at reaching the poor and better controlled at the grassroots (草根) level.

71. 改善发展中国家贫穷状况的方法

段落大意：改善发展中国家贫穷状况的方法有：资助住房建设；资助教育；实施计划生育；资助保健；提供就业帮助；鼓励政治参与；实施公正的财产法；减少税收和政府花费等。

Numerous methods have been adopted to upgrade the situation of those in poverty, and some are contradictory to each other. Some of these mechanisms (结构) are:

1）Subsidized（津贴）housing development.

2）Education, especially that directed at assisting the poor to produce food in underdeveloped countries.

3）Family planning to allow family incomes to better cover the cost of living.

4）Subsidized health care.

5）Assistance in finding employment.

6）Encouragement of political participation and involvement in organizing community.

7）Implementation of fair property rights laws.

8）Reduction of regulatory burden and bureaucratic oversight.

9）Reduction of taxation on income.

10）Reduction of government spending, including a reduction in borrowing and printing money.

72. 通过发展商品交易帮助发展中国家脱贫

段落大意：帮助发展中国家脱贫的另一方法是商品交易，即提供国际市场所需商品的必要信息。

Another method in helping fight poverty is to have commodity (商品) exchanges that will supply necessary information about national and perhaps international markets to the poor who would then know what products will bring better profits and where it is sold. For example, in Ethiopia, remote farmers, who do not have this information, produce crops that may not be very profitable. When they sell their products to a local trader, who then sells to another trader, and another, the cost of the food rises before it finally reaches the consumer in large cities. Economist, Gabre-Madhin proposes warehouses (仓库) where farmers could have constant update of the latest market prices, making the farmer think nationally, not locally. Each warehouse would have an independent neutral party that would test and grade the farmer’s harvest, allowing traders in Addis Ababa, and potentially outside Ethiopia, to place bids（投标）on food, even if it is unseen. Thus, if the farmer gets five cents in one place, he would get three times the price by selling it in another part of the country where there may be a drought.

73. 交通的作用

段落大意：交通与经济力量和军事力量联系紧密。交通提供自然资源的运输手段，可以促进贸易，使国家积累财富和实力。

Throughout history, the economic wealth and military power of a nation have been closely related to the efficiency of its transportation. Transportation provides access to natural resources and promotes trade, thus allowing a nation to accumulate wealth and power. Good transportation also allows quick movement of soldiers, equipment, and supplies so that a nation can wage (进行) war.

74. 交通与人口分布

段落大意：交通系统在很大程度上决定了人们的居住方式和地点。便利的交通系统使人们可以住在远离工厂的郊区。

Transportation systems and the routes they use have greatly influenced both how and where people live. Reliable transportation allows people to work in the city and live comfortably in remote countryside. Moreover, transportation has an important role in the distribution of the U.S. cities. The growth and expansion of the United States were directly related to the means of transportation available at the time. The cities of the U.S. eastern seaboard are compact today because the early human- and animal-based transportation systems allowed only short trips. The cities of the western United States sprawl (杂乱扩展) as a result of an automobile-based transportation system that permits much longer travel distances.

75. 交通与经济

段落大意：交通对经济至关重要。降低原材料运输费和成品上市运输费，是经济竞争的一个关键因素。交通产业是最大的产业。

Transportation is vital to a nation’s economy. Reducing the costs of transporting natural resources to production sites and moving finished goods to markets is one of the key factors in economic competition. The transportation industry is the largest industry in the world. It includes the manufacture and distribution of vehicles, the production and distribution of fuel, and the provision of transportation services. In 2000, approximately 3.2 percent of the U.S. gross domestic product (GDP) and an estimated 7.4 percent of all jobs in the United States were related to the transportation industry.

76. 交通与战争

段落大意：军队、装备、给养的快速运送是战争胜利的决定性因素。

Transportation systems that link all parts of a nation can also be used in the nation’s war efforts. The rapid movement of troops, equipment, and supplies can be a deciding factor in winning a battle or a war. Just as mobilizing (调动) a nation’s military strength is critical to victory, disabling the enemy’s transportation system is usually an early strategic objective of any armed conflict.

77. 交通与环境

段落大意：交通系统会影响到环境，如，机动车尾气会导致污染。

In the later 20th century, people became more aware of the impact transportation systems had on the environment. For example, the burning of fossil (化石) fuels for motor vehicles creates pollution that can be harmful to human health. In the United States, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) estimates that three-quarters of all carbon monoxide（一氧化物）and one-half of all oxides of nitrogen（氮氧化物）come from motor vehicles. In addition, petroleum（石油）-based transportation is responsible for approximately one-third of carbon dioxide（二氧化碳）emissions（排放）in the United States, an important contributor to global warming. Transportation accounts for 66 percent of total U.S. oil consumption. Other environmental effects of transportation systems include impacts on noise levels, water quality, hazardous（危险的）materials, natural habitats（栖息地）, and wetlands（湿地）. Many governments now require that before a new transportation project is begun, a detailed study called an environmental impact assessment must be prepared to evaluate how the project will affect the environment.

78. 交通与全球化贸易

段落大意：全球化贸易反映了许多国家经济上的相互依赖性，而交通是促成各国贸易的重要因素。

International trade routes connect different countries. These routes reflect the economic interdependence (相互依赖) of many nations around the world. Many countries are dependent on other countries for natural resources, finished goods such as automobiles and electronics, and parts for products assembled (组装) locally. Many of the world’s largest trade partners, such as the United States, Canada, Japan, Mexico, and Europe, are connected with numerous transportation routes and services. In Asia, Japan has strong maritime (海洋的) trade relations with Southeast Asian countries in order to exchange manufactured goods for natural resources. The U.S. ports（港口）of New Orleans, Louisiana, and Miami, Florida, are major ports for trade with Latin American nations.

79. 交通的非直接经济效益

段落大意：除了贸易相关的经济利益，交通还有许多非直接经济效益，如大量工人就业于交通产业；交通产业促进了其他相关产业的发展。

Besides the economic benefits associated with trade, there are many other indirect economic benefits transportation can provide. More than 9.5 million workers are employed in transportation-related industries in the United States, and the transportation sector contributed $314 billion for the U.S. gross domestic product (GDP) in 2000 which totaled $9.9 trillion. Aerospace (航空与航天器制造的), naval (海军的), and automobile manufacturers are responsible for a large amount of that figure, as are the industries that supply these manufacturers, such as the steel, rubber (橡胶), petroleum, and electronics industries.

80. 车祸

段落大意：意外事故的最大原因是车祸。

The single greatest cause of accidents in the United States is the automobile. In 1913 the American industrialist Henry Ford introduced assembly-line（流水线）techniques in the manufacture of motor vehicles. The subsequent increase in the number of automobiles in use was huge and led to a great rise in the motor-vehicle accident rate. In 1991 in the U.S., automobile accidents were responsible for about 49.4 percent of all accidental deaths. The remaining part comprised accidents in the home (about 23.3 percent), accidents in public places, including railroads and airplanes (about 20.5 percent), and work-related accidents (about 11.3 percent).

81. 汽车责任保险

段落大意：美国的经济责任法律要求出过车祸的车主再次取得驾驶资格之前，要购买一定的汽车责任险。

Financial-responsibility laws exist in almost every state in the U.S. and require car owners who have been involved in automobile accidents or are guilty of certain offenses（过错）to obtain automobile liability insurance of a specified minimum amount before they are licensed to drive a car again. In addition, about half of the states have compulsory automobile liability insurance laws that require all car owners to obtain automobile liability insurance before they register their cars, thus assuring that innocent victims of automobile accidents will be compensated for personal injury and property damage.

82. 老年问题I：健康

段落大意：最主要的老年问题是健康问题，如听力、视力和记忆丧失以及慢性疾病等。

Gerontologists (老年医学家) study how senior citizens are treated within a society and how they deal with the inevitable problems of aging, particularly those involving health and income. Health problems include normal losses in hearing, eyesight, and memory, and the increased likelihood of chronic (慢性的) diseases. These losses are gradual and proceed at different rates for each individual. Many people do not experience physical declines until very old age. The great majority of the elderly learn to adapt to the limitations imposed by health problems. In general, the health condition of the elderly today is better than that of previous generations, and that is likely to improve still further as more people receive better medical care throughout their lives. In most industrial societies, the high cost of treating chronic illness has been covered, at least partially, by national health programs.

83. 老年问题II：经济收入

段落大意：第二大老年问题是经济收入和福利。老年人不再工作，所以一定形式的收入必不可少。

The second major problem of the elderly involves income and economic welfare. Most old people are no longer in the labor force, so some form of income maintenance（维持）is necessary. Industrial societies are characterized by systems of pensions（养老金）and benefits such as Social Security in the United States, which currently is increased automatically as the cost of living rises, thus reducing somewhat the impact of inflation. The income of retired people is about half that of working people, and most manage to maintain themselves independently. In the United States, however, about 20 percent of the elderly live below or slightly above the poverty level. These are predominantly (占主导地) women and members of minority groups for whom economic security has always been a problem. In numerous other industrialized nations where social welfare systems are more extensive, the proportion of the elderly who lack adequate housing, transportation, and social services has reduced significantly.

84. 养老金

段落大意：养老金是由特定基金支付的年津贴或收入。

Annuity (年金) is annual allowance, payment, or income derived (得自) from funds especially designated for the purpose. Annuities may also be any payments delivered at fixed intervals (间隔). An annuity often represents only the interest derived from a principal（本金）fund, but it may also include periodic（周期的）payments of principal. In many cases the fund is established according to a will or a trust (信托) agreement. Annuities are frequently funded by the earnings of life insurance policies. Recipients may be paid by the funds that were established for their benefit on the deaths of other life insurance policy-holders, or they may have policies of their own. Other forms of annuity are social security and unemployment insurance.

85. 个人养老计划

段落大意：许多工作单位并不提供退休养老金计划，因此个人需要建立自己的退休养老账户。

Many individuals work for organizations or companies that do not offer a retirement plan, so they seek to supplement their retirement income by opening their own retirement accounts. These are known as individual plans, and they represent a part of the third leg of the “tripod (三脚架) of economic security”. There are two main types of individual plans: individual retirement accounts (IRAs) and Roth IRAs. In addition, there are a variety of life insurance products, such as annuities, enabling individuals to save for their retirement.

86. 其他养老保障

段落大意：除了正式退休养老计划，个人还可以使用多种理财产品来存钱，以备退休养老之用，如存钱、共有基金、人寿保险等。

In addition to the various formal retirement savings programs, individuals can use a variety of financial products in the marketplace to save for retirement, like bank savings accounts, mutual funds (共有基金), and life insurance products. Life insurance products, particularly annuities, are commonly used for retirement saving purposes. Insurance products permit the tax-deferred (延税) growth of investment income similar to a retirement plan. Some insurance products are designed with a savings component and a death benefit. Annuity contracts guarantee a stream of income as long as an individual lives, based on the value that has accumulated in the contract. Since an individual cannot outlive (比…活得长) the stream of income from an annuity, these products have historically been used to fund various types of retirement savings plans.

87. 退休计划

段落大意：退休计划指由政府、雇主或个人财政计划提供的退休生活保障。

Retirement Plans refer to a variety of government, employer, and individual financial programs that help provide a livable（能接受的）income when a person stops working. The three principal sources of retirement income in the United States are the government-sponsored social security system, private employer-sponsored retirement plans, and individual savings plans. These three sources of retirement income have often been called the “tripod of economic security”. Most experts agree that people need to receive income from all three sources to remain financially secure during retirement.

88. 养老金与福利计划

段落大意：养老金与福利计划指由雇主独立或联合为雇员提供的人寿保险、事故健康保险、养老金或其他福利。

Welfare and Pension Plans refer to plans maintained by employers separately, or jointly, to provide life insurance, accident- and health- insurance, pensions, or other benefits for employees. Sometimes such plans are called private, or voluntary, employee-benefit plans to distinguish them from the types of social insurance required by law or administered by government, for example, social security and workers’ compensation.

89. 监视器的影响

段落大意：监视器最大的影响是大量组织可以使用监视器：国家安全机构合法使用监视器；大公司监视控制员工工作；公司买卖信息来进行市场营销或广告；个人信息有可能被用作犯罪目的。

The greatest impact of computer-enabled surveillance（监视）is that a large number of organizations are involved in this operation.

The state and security services still have the most powerful surveillance systems, because they are enabled under the law. However, today the levels of state surveillance have increased, and by using computers they are now able to draw together many different information sources to produce profiles of persons or groups in society.

Many large corporations now use various forms of “passive” surveillance. This is primarily a means of monitoring the activities of staff and for controlling public relations. However, some large corporations actively use different forms of surveillance to monitor the activities of activists and campaign groups who may impact their operations.

Many companies trade information lawfully, buying and selling it from other companies or local government agencies that collect it. This data is usually bought by companies who wish to use it for marketing or advertising purposes.

Personal information is obtained by many small groups and individuals. Some of this is used for harmless purposes, and increasingly sensitive personal information is being obtained for criminal purposes, such as credit card fraud.

90. 个人隐私

段落大意：不同文化或个人对个人隐私的内容和界限的理解不同，但有一些基本共识。

Privacy is the right of an individual or group to seclude (隔离) information about themselves and thereby reveal themselves selectively. The boundaries and content of what is considered private differs among cultures and individuals. Nevertheless, they share basic common understanding about the concept. Privacy is sometimes related to anonymity (匿名), the wish to remain unnoticed or unidentified in the public realm (领域). When something is private to a person, it usually means there is something within them that is considered inherently special or personally sensitive. The degree to which information is considered private therefore depends on how the public will receive this information, which differs among places and over time.

91. 个人隐私受法律保护

段落大意：个人隐私不受政府、公司或个人侵犯，这一点受到许多国家隐私法的保护。

The right against unsanctioned（未批准的）invasion of privacy by government, corporations or individuals is part of many countries’ privacy laws, and in some cases, constitutions. Almost all countries have laws which in some way limit privacy. An example of this would be the law concerning taxation, which normally requires disclosure of information about personal income or earnings. In some countries individual privacy may conflict with freedom of speech laws, and some laws may require public disclosure of information which would be considered private in other countries and cultures.