第七大类： 工作与成功类

1. 美国职业教育概况

段落大意：美国的职业教育在中学和社区大学里进行，并部分由联邦资助。

In the U.S., vocational education programs are conducted in public secondary schools and community colleges and are financed in part by federal funds. Other programs are conducted by business and industry, labor organizations, the armed forces, and private vocational-technical schools. Programs in both public and private institutions are general in scope (范围), providing training for several jobs in an occupational cluster（群）. Programs conducted by business, industry, and the armed forces usually focus on particular aspects. Under the Vocational Education Amendments (1968), vocational programs are administered by the U.S. Department of Education.

2. 无门槛的职业教育

段落大意：无门槛职业教育的目的是为每个人提供高质量职业指导。

Many public and private schools offering vocational instruction (教育) adopt a so-called open-door policy, that is, anyone who can profit from the instruction may attend the school. The goal of the public school vocational program is to provide access for all people to high-quality instruction that will meet occupational demand. Every state department of education in the U.S. employs specialists in vocational education.

3. 一些有关职业发展的相关问题

段落大意：一些与职业发展相关的问题，包括某领域需求的关键技能、热门工作等等。

You might want to pose questions that relate to your vocation as follows:

1） The key skills and core competencies (能力) that employers are looking for in the field

2 ）The hottest sectors of the job market for this type of work

3 ）Three to five of the most important issues currently being addressed in the field

4 ）The professional resources used by the movers（行动者）and shakers（摇动者）in the field

5 ）Changes that could impact the field and industry

6）How to gain status and recognition in the field or industry

4. 职业教育的范围

段落大意：职业教育有短期和长期之分，范围包括办公技能、农业、贸易、健康服务和技术培训等。

Vocational education programs range from short-unit (ten weeks or less) to long-term programs up to two years in length. The programs include numerous occupational areas, such as office skills, agriculture, various trades, health services, and technical training. The scope of vocational education is broad, ranging from occupations requiring little skill to those requiring a high degree of skills and scientific knowledge. Jobs requiring minimum training are not generally included in formal programs because the necessary skills can be readily learned on the job.

5. 职业教育的必要性

段落大意：技术对职业的冲击、雇主对雇员更高的教育背景要求、对拥有专门训练雇员的需求——这些因素导致职业教育势在必行。

Vocational education refers to instruction on skills necessary for persons who are preparing to enter the labor force or who need training or retraining in the technology of their occupations. The impact of technology on occupations, the tendency of employers to set higher educational requirements, and the need for employees to gain specialized skills have made vocational training imperative (急需的). Part-time programs are essential to provide occupational mobility among workers and to overcome the effects of job obsolescence（过时）.

6. 职业咨询

段落大意：职业咨询的基本原则：职业咨询师可以帮助人们了解自己的性格特点及职业要求，从而更好地进行职业准备。

Although the vocational guidance and vocational education movements developed separately during the early 1900s, they later became closely associated. Today career counseling is recognized as being important for everyone. The basic principle of career counseling and guidance is that a person is better equipped to make occupational plans after exploring his or her own characteristics, examining the requirements of various occupations, and matching the two sets of facts with the aid of a skilled counselor. Various standardized tests and inventories (详细目录) have been developed to measure skills, aptitudes（资质）, interests, and other abilities and traits（特色）. In addition to school records, job-shadowing techniques and computerized programs are also used to assist students with occupational selection.

7. 职业咨询有助于了解工作种类

段落大意：职业咨询有助于人们了解各种各样的工作，从而更加自由地选择职业。除此以外，工作经验也是择业的一大促进因素。

A major aspect of career counseling and guidance is the knowledge of the field of work. Ignorance of work has been a great deterrent (阻碍物) to freedom of occupational choice. To help solve this problem, some schools provide opportunity for students to gain actual work experience as part of their vocational preparation. The value of work experience in education has long been recognized and is now emphasized in the counseling of youth.

8. 教育指导

段落大意：教育指导帮助学生获得自我认知和自我定位。

Educational guidance is the process of helping students achieve self-understanding and self-direction which is necessary to make informed choices and move toward personal goals. Guidance, a uniquely American educational innovation, focuses on the complete development of individual students through a series of services designed to maximize school learning, stimulate career development, and respond to the personal and social concerns that inhibit individual growth. Although guidance activities are usually associated with educational professionals known as counselors, educational guidance is actually a cooperative enterprise (努力) involving the participation of teachers, administrators, other educational specialists, and parents.

9. 美国教育指导的起源

段落大意：教育指导起源于职业指导服务，并得到了迅速发展。

The origins of educational guidance are firmly rooted in the development of vocational guidance services. In 1908 the Vocation Bureau of Boston was established under the direction of the American lawyer and educator Frank Parsons to assist young men in making vocational choices based on their occupational aptitudes and interests. It soon became obvious that individuals needed vocational guidance while still in school so that they could prepare for their chosen careers. By midcentury, counseling services had been provided for a larger range of people, and counselors extended their activities beyond vocational advice to problems of social adjustment.

10. 美国国防教育法的目的

段落大意：美国国防教育法的目的是寻找能力突出的学生，鼓励并帮助他们接受更高教育。

The National Defense Education Act (NDEA) of 1958 more than doubled the number of trained personnel available to provide expanded guidance services in the public schools. The purpose of the act was to identify students with outstanding abilities, to encourage them to seek higher education, and to assist them in following studies best suited to their abilities. NDEA also provided financial incentives (激励) like grants（奖助金）to train institutions to make educational guidance an integral part of public secondary education.

11. 美国教育指导项目：制订学术计划和学生评估

段落大意：美国教育指导项目包括一系列服务，如制订学术计划和学生评估等。

In public schools, guidance programs are organized as a series of services. One service is academic planning. Counselors assist students with curriculum and individual course selection, and they also help students who have academic difficulties. Student appraisal (评估) is another counseling function. Standardized tests are administered to assess academic achievement, to identify individual aptitudes, to explore vocational interests, and to examine personal characteristics. Tests are also used to identify gifted students and those with special learning problems.

12. 美国教育指导项目：职业发展项目

段落大意：美国教育指导项目还包括职业发展项目，其目的是培养职业选择意识、人际交往技巧和实际工作技能等。

Other counseling services include career-development programs to foster（培养）awareness of career alternatives, programs in human relations skills, and training in practical job skills, as well as the acquisition and dissemination (宣传) of related information. Counselors work with teachers, administrators, and families in coordinated efforts to help resolve problems of specific students. If necessary, they can introduce students to train therapists for additional assistance. In colleges and universities, administrative offices concerning student affairs, admissions, financial aid, housing, and student health and so on, provide guidance services. College counseling centers assist students with academic, vocational, or personal problems.

13. 美国教育指导现状

段落大意：除了学校颁发的证书，专职教育指导者还希望取得从业执照。对教育指导行业的规范同样要求更高的职业责任心。

In addition to state certification as educationally qualified personnel within schools, many guidance professionals are seeking licensing (执照) outside of school settings. Several states currently grant license to counselors. Increased efforts to license and regulate guidance workers also elicit (引出) greater demands for professional accountability. Guidance workers are required to develop specific programs with measurable goals and systematic evaluation procedures to demonstrate their effectiveness. Programs have been developed for such special problem areas as abusive（虐待的）families, divorce, and substance abuse（滥用药物）, and for specific groups such as minorities and the physically and developmentally disabled. Community-based programs also emphasize prevention and crisis intervention as primary guidance strategies.

14. 关系网的概念

段落大意：构建关系网的目的是获得并散布信息，这可以通过非正式且自然的方式来进行。构建关系网的目的是了解他人，并寻求他人对自己项目的建议。

Networking is the art of building relationships for the purpose of acquiring and disseminating information. It can be done informally and naturally every time you interact with another professional. When you network, your objective is to learn about the other individual and to seek their advice on your project. In the case of job searches, the project is about locating resources—including individuals—that will help you learn about the job market specific to your particular expertise and interests. It’s a good idea to network while you are still happy or moderately (普通地) happy with your job. Once you’ve established a professional network, you can more easily expand on and give attention to this process when the need arises.

15. 构建关系网

段落大意：构建关系网是进行职业管理的必要技巧。通过构建关系网，可以建立资源、获取信息并帮助他人。

In this age of increasingly short-term job cycles, networking is an essential skill for managing your career. Many people think that networking is simply a euphemism (委婉语) for asking for a job. However, if you are truly networking, you are building resources, acquiring information, and offering assistance to others at the same time. Unfortunately, networking is not an instinctive skill, and it can only be achieved by practice.

16. 如何通过会谈构建关系网

段落大意：可以通过电子邮件和电话来与认识的人进行会谈，探讨自己的职业发展状况。

Once you’ve made the transition from informal to more formal contacts, assess whether it is better to call or write to request for a meeting based on the nature of your relationship with that individual. In some cases, you may want to do both. Send a letter or an e-mail message, and then follow up with a phone call. Whatever the medium, you can set the tone for the meeting and provide your contact with some general background including the following points:

1）Opening lines that express interest in this person and a reference to the last time you met

2）A brief update on your professional status

3）A statement about your interest in investigating a new career direction

4）A request to discuss these ideas and obtain some advice on your endeavor

17. 合理组织关系网构建

段落大意：非求职状态下，保持每个月五次的关系网交谈；求职状态下，每周进行几次关系网交谈。

If you are networking while currently employed, you might want to set a goal of five networking conversations per month. These could occur in person or over the phone. If you are actively hunting jobs, you should aim at having several networking conversations per week. Very quickly you’ll find that you need a tracking system to record names of initial contacts, referrals (参考) obtained from those contacts, e-mail addresses, phone numbers, and mailing addresses. You’ll also want to note the source for each referral, dates when you’ve made contact, and any follow-up conversations you plan to have with that individual.

18. 如何开始关系网的构建

段落大意：首先将所认识的人列出，包括朋友、亲戚、同事以及为自己提供服务的人。与这些不同的人交谈将有助于构建有益的关系网。

Some of the best networkings can be simply talking to people you know well. If you are new at networking and are just beginning career research or a job search, begin by making a broad list of people you know, even those people you hadn’t thought about having network contacts. Your list should include friends, relatives, work colleagues (past and present), and service providers such as your accountant, physicians, and others with whom you do business on a personal basis. Also include neighbors, club members, teachers and professors, alumni (校友) contacts, social and community contacts, and local merchants. Informal discussions with these various individuals can often lead to more helpful, formal networking contacts. Be prepared to discuss your career background even with people who know you well. You’d be surprised how little others may know about your work accomplishments. You can also start networking by joining a professional association.

19. 失业保险

段落大意：失业保险的概念。

Unemployment insurance is a form of social insurance, designed to provide income to persons who have lost their jobs. Unemployment insurance is wage related and is paid as a matter of right to any insured eligible (符合条件的) worker. The two major goals of the system are to prevent unemployed persons from undergoing severe hardships and to get them back to work. Unemployment compensation benefits account for approximately 1 percent of personal income in most developed Western nations.

20. 失业保险的重要性

段落大意：随着失业率的升高，失业保险越来越重要。

With the higher unemployment rates in Western nations since 1973, the protection offered by unemployment insurance has increased in importance. If unemployment stays high, pressures for extensions of potential duration and for increased weekly benefits are likely to grow, while public concern about preventing payment to those not seriously seeking work expands. In the future as in the past, interest in a country’s unemployment insurance program will be directly related to the degree of the unemployment problem.

21. 失业保险的实现方式

段落大意：州失业补偿法建立基金，由雇主提供资金，对失业人员提供失业保险。

State unemployment compensation laws establish a fund, financed by contributions from employers, from which weekly unemployment benefits are paid for a specified number of weeks. Employers’ contributions are based on experience rating, that is, they are related to the amount of benefits received in the past by workers laid off from the business. A few states also require contributions from employees. To be eligible for benefits, an unemployed worker must have earned a given amount of wages within a specific period of time. In addition, a worker must file a claim, register for work at the state employment service, be able to work, and be available for suitable work. A claimant may be disqualified（剥夺资格）from benefits for varying periods if he or she left a job voluntarily without a good cause, dismissed for misconduct, or refused an offer of suitable work. Until another job is found or the benefit period ends, a worker receives a weekly payment by reporting at scheduled intervals（间隔）to the local unemployment office.

22. 企业家精神

段落大意：创业企业家将商业运作的相关因素组织在一起，筹集资金、确定商业场所、组织工人、管理整个企业运作，并同时承担相应的风险。

Entrepreneurship（企业家精神）is an ability some people have to accept risks and combine factors of production in order to produce goods and services. Entrepreneurs (企业家) organize the various components necessary to operate a business. They raise the necessary financial backing（支持）, acquire a physical site for the business, assemble a team of workers, and manage the overall operation of the enterprise. They accept the risk of losing the money they spend on the business in the hope that eventually they will earn a profit. If the business is successful, they receive all or some share of the profits. If the business fails, they bear some or all of the losses.

23. 创业者和经理人的区别

段落大意：经理人并不是创业者或企业家，因为他们只是执行上层决策。而创业者或企业家不仅要对整个企业负责，而且要愿意承担风险。

Many people mistakenly believe that anyone who manages a large company is an entrepreneur. However, many managers at large companies simply carry out decisions made by higher-ranking executives. These managers are not entrepreneurs because they do not have final control over the company and they do not make decisions that involve risking the company’s resources. On the other hand, many of the nation’s entrepreneurs run small businesses, including restaurants, convenience stores, and farms. These individuals are true entrepreneurs, because entrepreneurship involves not merely the organization and management of a business, but also an individual’s willingness to accept risks in order to make a profit.

24. 工资

段落大意：工资所包含的内容。

Wages, in economic theory, refer to price paid for labor. Wages consist of all payments that compensate individuals for time and effort spent in the production of economic goods and services. The payments include wages in the ordinary, narrow sense, which are the earnings, computed（计算）generally on an hourly, daily, weekly, or output basis, of manual and clerical（文书的）workers. It also contains weekly, monthly, or annual salaries of professional and supervisory (管理的) personnel, bonuses added to regular earnings, premiums (津贴) for night or holiday work or for work exceeding stated norms of quantity or quality, fees and retainers (聘用定金) for professional services, and that part of the income of business owners that compensates them for time devoted to business.

25. 高回报率与年收入

段落大意：高回报率并不意味着高的年收入。

A high rate of pay does not ensure large annual earnings. Construction workers are paid at relatively high hourly rates, but their annual income usually is low because of the irregularity of their employment. In addition, nominal (名义的) wages do not accurately reflect real earnings. During a period of inflation the real value of wages may fall although nominal wages rise, because the cost of living rises more rapidly than monetary earnings. Deductions（减除）from wages for income taxes, social security taxes, pension payments, union dues（应付款）, insurance premiums（保险费）, and other charges further reduce the worker’s final earning.

26. 生活成本与生活水平影响工资水平

段落大意：生活成本与生活水平影响工资水平。

The factors determining wage levels in particular countries at particular times are cost of living and standards of living. First is the cost of living. Even in poor societies, wages are usually at least sufficient to pay the cost of sustaining workers and their children. Otherwise, the working population will not reproduce itself and will decline. The other is the standards of living. Prevailing living standards influence conceptions of what constitutes a so-called living wage, thus helping to determine wage levels. Improvements in general living conditions generate moral pressures for giving laborers a share of the better life. In the presence of such pressures, employers are more inclined to grant wage increases and legislators are constrained to approve minimum-wage and other laws designed to improve workers’ conditions. However, this effect is not large.

27. 劳动力供应和生产率影响工资水平

段落大意：劳动力供应和生产率等影响工资水平。

The relative supply of labor: Where labor is relatively scarce compared to capital, land, and other resources, as in the United States in the 19th century, employers’ competitive bidding (出价) for labor tends to raise the general wage level. On the other hand, as in present-day India, where the ratio of labor to other resources is high and accordingly the supply of labor greatly exceeds demand, competition among laborers for the relatively few available jobs tends to depress the wage level.

Productivity: Wages tend to rise with productivity. Productivity depends partly on the energy and skill of the labor force and more on the level of technology employed. U.S. wage levels are high largely because American workers obtain the skills necessary for operating the most advanced industrial equipment.

Bargaining power: The organization of labor in trade unions and in political associations enhances its relative bargaining power and thus tends to win for organized labor, especially in time of deflation, a larger share of the national income.

28. 工资水平七大影响因素I：产品相对价值、能力获取成本

段落大意：工资水平受七大因素影响，其中包括产品相对价值和能力获取成本。

The general wage level is an average of widely differing individual pay rates and earnings. The various elements contributing to wage differentiation are as follows.

Relative value of product: An industrious and skilled worker who produces a more valuable output than workers of lesser capabilities is worth more to an employer and usually is paid more.

Costs of required capabilities: Employers must pay the price of special training if they need workers who are so trained. If engineers did not receive more compensation than laborers, relatively few persons would invest the time, money, and effort required to become engineers.

29. 工资水平七大影响因素II：特定劳力相对稀缺性、职业相对吸引力、劳动力机动性

段落大意：工资水平受七大因素影响，其中包括：特定劳力相对稀缺性、职业相对吸引力、劳动力机动性。

Relative scarcity of specific kinds of labor: Common labor is paid poorly because it is common, but entertainers, such as movie stars and television performers, who have qualities regarded as unique enjoy very large incomes.

Comparative attractiveness of occupations: Difficult, disagreeable, or dangerous jobs usually bring higher rates of pay than do more inviting jobs requiring less skills. Thus, a truck driver engaged in moving explosives earns more than one delivering groceries.

Mobility of labor: Where the working population is immobile, wage differentials（差别）are wide. On the other hand, the readiness of workers to change jobs or to move long distances to better-paying positions tends to narrow wage differentials among firms, occupations, and communities.

30. 工资水平七大影响因素III：讨价还价能力、习俗与立法

段落大意：工资水平受七大因素影响，其中包括：讨价还价能力、习俗与立法。

Comparative bargaining strength: A union may lift the wages of its members above the scales paid to unorganized workers of equal skill.

Custom and legislation: Many wage differentials are rooted in custom or legislation. For example, both custom and legislation are responsible for the fact that black miners in South Africa have long earned only a fraction of the wages paid white miners doing equivalent work. On the other hand, governments and unions frequently act to eliminate wage differentials based on race, sex, and other irrelevancies（无关之物）and to standardize wages generally.

31. 工资理论：生存理论

段落大意：第一个现代工资理论，生存理论，认为维持生活消费是决定工资水平的决定性因素。

The first modern explanation of wages, the so-called subsistence（生存）theory, emphasized the consumption needed to sustain life and maintain the working population as the chief determinant（决定因素）of wage levels. The theory was adumbrated（大致描述）by mercantilist（重商主义者） economists, elaborated by the Scottish economist Adam Smith, and developed fully by the British economist David Ricardo. Ricardo argued that wages are determined by the cost of barely sustaining laborers and that wages cannot long depart from the subsistence (生存) level. If earnings should fall below that level, he contended（声称）, the labor force would not reproduce itself. If earnings rise above it, the number of working-class children who would survive would be more than that needed to replenish (补充) the labor force, and wages again would be forced down to subsistence levels by the competition of laborers for the available jobs.

32. 收入分配

段落大意：收入分配指两个不同但相互关联的过程：社会成员收入以及生产元素间的价值分配。

Distribution, in economics, refers to two different, but related, processes. The first is the division among the members of society, as individuals, of the national income and wealth. The second is the apportionment (分摊) of the value of the output of goods among the factors or agents of production, namely, labor, land, capital, and management. The division or apportionment of this value takes the form of monetary payments, consisting of wages and salaries, rent, interest, and profit. Wages and salaries are paid to workers and managers; rent is paid for the use of land and for certain kinds of physical objects; interest is paid for the use of capital; and profit is realized by the owners of business enterprises as a reward for risk taking.

33. 影响收入的其他因素

段落大意：影响收入的其他因素包括垄断、工会的集体讨价还价能力以及社会立法等。

The distribution of the national income is influenced by a number of factors in addition to the operation of supply and demand. These factors include the practice by some monopolies（垄断）and cartels (联合企业) of creating artificial scarcities and fixing prices, collective bargaining by unions and management, and social reform legislation, such as social security and minimum wage and maximum hour laws. Such factors tend to increase the income of one group or another above the level it would reach through the unimpeded (不受妨碍的) operation of the law of supply and demand. Taxation is also an important factor affecting income distribution.

34. 收入不公平

段落大意：收入不公很大程度上取决于供求法则。

Authoritative opinion mainly maintains that inequalities in income result, in great part, from the operation of the law of supply and demand. In this view, for example, an overproduction of cotton will result, through a consequent fall in the price of cotton, in a decrease in the income of cotton growers. It will also tend to result in an increase in the real income, or purchasing power, of the purchasers of cotton, who can buy more with the same amount of money. Similarly, when capital is abundant and the demand for it is low, interest rates tend to fall. As a result, the relative share of the national income of creditors tends to decrease, while the share of borrowers tends to rise. Variations in the relative share of the national income of workers are also explained in terms of the operation of the law of supply and demand. When labor is plentiful, wage rates tend to fall; when labor is scarce, as in wartime, wages tend to rise. Finally, inequalities in income among workers are explained by the relative abundance or scarcity of their skills. Skilled workers, less numerous than unskilled ones, receive higher wage rates. Workers with rare skills are paid at a higher rate than those with skills found in abundance.