16 人类发展理论

Human development theory is a theory that merges older ideas fromecological economics, sustainable development, welfare economics, and feministeconomics. It seeks to avoid the overt normative politics of most so-called “green economics”by justifying its theses strictly in ecology, economicsand sound social science, and by working within a context of globalization.

It focuses on measuring well-being and detecting uneconomic growth thatcomes at the expense of human health. However, it goes further in seeking notonly to measure but to optimize well-being by some explicit modeling of howsocial capital and instructional capital can be deployed to optimize theoverall value of human capital in an economy—which is itself part of ecology.The role of individual capital within that ecology, and the adaptation of theindividual to live well within it, is a major focus of these theories.

17 社会进步指标

Theorists usually measured progression （that is, the difference between one stage andthe next） in terms ofincreasing social complexity （including class differentiation and a complex division oflabor）, or an increasein intellectual, theological, and aesthetic sophistication. Those 19th-centuryethnologists used these principles primarily to explain differences inreligious beliefs and kinship terminologies among various societies.

18 社会进步与政府干预以及两大社会类型

Society was evolving toward increasing freedom for individuals; and sothat government intervention ought to be minimal in social and political life,differentiated between two phases of development, focusing on the type ofinternal regulation within societies.

Military and industrial societies are differentiated. （The earlier, moreprimitive military society has a goal of conquest and defense, is centralized,economically self-sufficient, collectivistic, puts the good of a group over thegood of an individual, uses compulsion, force and repression, and rewardsloyalty, obedience and discipline. The industrial society has a goal ofproduction and trade, is decentralized, interconnected with other societies viaeconomic relations, achieves its goals through voluntary cooperation andindividual self-restraint, treats the good of individual as the highest value,regulates the social life via and voluntary relations, values initiative,independence and innovation.）

19 技术进步有赖于其他社会组织

The development of technology is dependent on the presence of other typesof social organizations. Nobel laureate economist Arthur Lewis observed thatthe mechanization of factory production in England which became known as theIndustrial Revolution was a direct result of the reorganization of Englishagriculture. The enclosure of common lands in England generated surplus incomefor the farmers. That extra income generated additional raw materials forindustrial processing along with greater demand for industrial products whichwas difficult to meet by traditional manufacturing processes. The opening ofsea trade gave an added boost in demand for industrial production for export.Factory production increased many times when production was reorganized usingsteam energy combined with moving assembly lines, specialization and division

of labor. Thus, technological developmentwas both a result of and a contributing factor to the overall development ofsociety.

20 社会进步与技术革新

Though technological inventions have markedly increased the pace ofdevelopment, the tendency to view developmental accomplishments as mainlypowered by technology is a partial view that misses the bigger picture.Technological innovation was spurred by the general advance in the socialorganization of knowledge. In the Middle Ages, efforts at scientific creativitywere few and isolated from one another, mainly because there were no effectivearrangements for the preservation and dissemination of knowledge. Since therewas no organized protection for patent rights, scientists and inventors werevery secretive about their activities and operations. The establishment ofscientific associations and the publication of scientific journals spurred theexchange of knowledge among scientists and created a written record that couldbe examined by posterity.

21 社会进步的限制因素

The concept of inherent limits to development arose mainly becausedevelopment in the past was determined largely by the availability of physicalresources. Humanity relied more on muscle-power than thought-power toaccomplish work. That is no longer the case. Today mental resources are theprimary determinant of development. He who drove a simple bullock cart has nowdesigned ships and aircraft that carry huge loads across immense distances. Hehas tamed rivers, cleared jungles and even turned arid desert lands intocultivable lands through irrigation. By using his brains he has turnedworthless sand into powerful silicon chips that carry huge amounts ofinformation and form the basis of computers. Since there is no inherent limitto the expansion of man’s mental resources, the notion of limits to growthcannot be ultimately binding.

22 资源对社会进步的制约及四大资源

It has been thought that the capacity for development is severely limiteddue to the inherent limitation in the availability of natural resources.Resources can be divided into four major categories: physical, social, mentaland human resources. Land, water, mineral and oil, etc. constitute physicalresources. Social resources consist of society’s capacity to manage and directcomplex systems and activities. Knowledge, information and technology aremental resources. The energy, skill and capacities of people constitute humanresources.

Though physical resources are limited in their availability, the samecannot be said about social, mental and human resources which are not subjectto any inherent limits. Even if these appear to be limited at present, there isno fixity about the limitation and these resources can and will continue toexpand over time and that expansion can be accelerated if appropriatestrategies are adopted. In recent decades the rate of growth has accelerateddramatically.

23 物质资源和非物质资源在社会发展中的作用

The role of physical resources tends to diminish as society moves tohigher levels in the scale of development. Correspondingly the role ofnon-material resources keeps increasing as development advances. One of themost important non-material resources is information, which has become a keyinput in modern times. Information is a non-material resource that does not getexhausted by

distribution or sharing. Greater access toinformation helps increase the pace of its development. Ready access toinformation about economic factors helps investors to immediately transfercapital to those sectors and areas where it will fetch a higher return. Thegreater input of non-material resources helps explain the rising productivityof societies in spite of a limited physical resource base.

24 非物质资源可以提高物质资源的生产力

The application of higher non-material inputs also raises the productivityof physical inputs. Modern technology has helped increase the proven sources ofoil by 50% in recent years and at the same time reduced the cost of searchoperations by 75%. Moreover, technology has shown that it is possible to reducethe amount of physical inputs in a wide range of activities. Scientificagricultural methods demonstrated that soil productivity could be raised byapplication of synthetic fertilizers. Dutch farm scientists have demonstratedthat a minimal water consumption of 1.4 liters is enough to raise a kilogram ofvegetables compared to the thousand liters that traditional irrigation methodsnormally require. Henry Ford’s assembly line techniques brought down theman-hours of labor required to deliver a car from 783 minutes to 93 minutes.These examples show that the greater input of higher non-material resources canraise the productivity of physical resources and thereby extend their limits.

25 社会文化进化论

Sociocultural evolutionists agree that the evolution-like process leads tosocial progress. Sociocultural evolutionism represented an attempt to formalizesocial thinking along scientific lines, which was later influenced by thebiological theory of evolution. If organisms could develop over time accordingto deterministic laws, then it seemed reasonable that societies could as well. Theydeveloped analogies between human society and the biological organism andintroduced into sociological theory such biological concepts as variation,natural selection, and inheritance—evolutionary factors resulting in theprogress of societies through stages of savagery and barbarism to civilization,by virtue of the survival of the fittest. Together with the idea of progressthere grew the notion of fixed “stages” through which human societies progress,usually numbering three—savagery, barbarism, and civilization—but sometimesmany more.

26 人口与社会相互影响

The size of the human population, its concentration in particular places,and its pattern of growth are influenced by the physical setting and by manyaspects of culture: economics, politics, technology, history, and religion. Inresponse to economic concerns, national governments set very differentpolicies—some to reduce population growth, some to increase it. Some religiousgroups also take a strong stand on population issues. Leaders of the Roman Catholicchurch, for example, have long campaigned against birth control, whereas, inrecent years, religious leaders of other major faiths have endorsed the use ofbirth control to restrict family size.

27 社会体系受到人口的影响

In turn, social systems are influenced by population—its size, its rate of change, and itsproportions of people with different characteristics （such as age, sex,and language）. Great increasein the size of a population requires greater job specialization, new government

responsibilities, new kinds ofinstitutions, and the need to marshal a more complex distribution of resources.Population patterns, particularly when they are changing, are also influentialin changing social priorities. The greater the variety of subcultures, the morediverse the provisions that have to be made for them. As the size of a socialgroup increases, so may its influence on society. The influence may be throughmarkets （such as youngpeople who, as a group, buy more athletic equipment）, voting power （for example, oldpeople are less likely to vote for school bond legislation）, or recognitionof need by social planners （for example, more mothers who work outside the home willrequire child-care programs）.

28 三大概念：社会地位、 阶层权利、 政治权力

Social Status: If you view someone as a social superior, that person willbe able to have power over you because you believe that person has a higherstatus than you do.

Class Power: This refers to people having unequal access to resources. Ifyou have access to something that someone else needs, that can make you morepowerful than the person in need. The person with the resource thus hasbargaining power over the other.

Political Power: Political power can influence the hierarchical system ofpower because those who can influence what laws are passed and how they areapplied can exercise power over others.

29 社会机动性与社会地位

In sociology, social stratification is the hierarchical arrangement ofsocial classes, castes and strata within a society. While these hierarchies arenot universal to all societies, they are the norm among state-level cultures （as distinguishedfrom hunter-gatherers or other social arrangements）.

Status can be changed through a process of Social Mobility. Socialmobility is the change of position within the stratification system. A changein status can be done upwardly in status, upward mobility, or they can movedown in status, downward mobility. Social mobility allows for a person to moveto another social status other than the one they were born in. Social mobilityis more frequent in societies where achievement rather than ascription is theprimary basis for social status.

30 社会数字划分的标准及其三大指标

The digital division of a society is usually measured in terms ofcitizen/population access to ICT. Among the indicators for measuring access are（1） telephone density （teledensity）; （2） personal computer （PC） deployment andpenetration; and （3） number of Internet users.

Teledensity is the ratio of population to telephones （traditionallydefined as fixed or wired telephone lines）. This indicator of the division must beredefined as to include cellular/mobile phone users since in a number ofdeveloping countries there are more mobile phones than wired phones.

Personal computer penetration and deployment has also been used to measureaccess, since it is the most common way of accessing the Internet. However,recently more and more ways of accessing the Internet have been devised.

The number of Internet users is also a way of looking at the digitaldivision. Statistics show that only about 10% of the world’s population isonline. Furthermore, most of these Internet users are in the developed Westerncountries: the US, Canada and Europe account for about 63% of the

world’s Internet users. The Asia-Pacific’sshare is about 30%. Africa and the Middle East combined account for less than2% of the universe of Internet users.