29 自我意象与行为

People will be more inclined to take on a task if they believe they can succeed. People generallyavoid tasks where their self-efficacy is low, but will engage in tasks where their self-efficacy ishigh. People with a self-efficacy significantly beyond their actual ability likely to overestimatetheir ability to complete tasks, which can lead to irreversible damage. On the other hand, peoplewith a self-efficacy significantly lower than their ability are unlikely to grow and expand theirskills. Research shows that the “optimum” level of self-efficacy is a little above ability, whichencourages people to tackle challenging tasks and gain valuable experience.

30 团体行为不是个人行为的加和

The behavior of groups cannot be understood solely as the aggregate behavior of individuals. It isnot possible, for example, to understand modern warfare by summing up the aggressive tendenciesof individuals. A person may behave very differently in a crowd—say, when at a football game, ata religious service, or on a picket line—than when alone or with family members. Several childrentogether may vandalize a building, even though none of them would do it on his or her own. Bythe same token, an adult will often be more generous and responsive to the needs of others as amember of, say, a club or religious group than he or she would be inclined to be in private. Thegroup situation provides the rewards of companionship and acceptance for going along with theshared action of the group and makes it difficult to assign blame or credit to any one person.

31 “霍兰德编码”的六大个性类别

Holland Codes are personality types created by psychologist John L. Holland as part of his theoryof career choice. Holland mapped these types into a hexagon which he then broke down into theRIASEC job environments. Holland argues that 2-3 types dominate in each person.Realistic—practical, physical, hands-on, tool-orientedInvestigative—analytical, intellectual, scientific, explorativeArtistic—creative, original, independent, chaoticSocial—cooperative, supporting, helping, healing/nurturingEnterprising—competitive environments, leadership, persuadingConventional—detail-oriented, organizing, clerical

32 团体对行为的影响

In addition to belonging to the social and cultural settings into which they are born, peoplevoluntarily join groups based on shared occupations, beliefs, or interests(such as unions, politicalparties, or clubs). Membership in these groups influences how people think of themselves andhow others think of them. These groups impose expectations and rules that make the behavior ofmembers more predictable and that enable each group to function smoothly and retain its identity.The rules may be informal and conveyed by example, such as how to behave at a social gathering, or they may be written rules that are strictly enforced. Formal groups often signal the kind ofbehavior they favor by means of rewards (such as praise, prizes, or privileges) and punishments(such as threats, fines, or rejections).

Affiliation with any social group, whether one joins it voluntarily or is born into it, brings someadvantages of larger numbers: the potential for pooling resources (such as money or labor),concerted effort (such as strikes, boycotts, or voting), and identity and recognition (such asorganizations, emblems, or attention from the media). Within each group, the members‟ attitudes,which often include an image of their group as being superior to others, help ensure cohesionwithin the group but can also lead to serious conflict with other groups. Attitudes toward othergroups are likely to involve stereotyping—treating all members of a group as though they were thesame and perceiving in those people‟s actual behavior only those qualities that fit the observer‟spreconceptions. Such social prejudice may include blind respect for some categories of people,such as doctors or clergy, as well as blind disrespect for other categories of people who are, say,foreign-born or women.

33 行为学家关于个性决定行为的理论

Behaviorists explain personality in terms of the effects external stimuli have on behavior. It was aradical shift away from Freudian philosophy. This school of thought was developed by B. F.Skinner who put forth a model which emphasized the mutual interaction of the person or “theorganism” with its environment. Skinner believed that children do bad things because thebehavior obtains attention that serves as a reinforcer. For example: a child cries because the child‟scrying in the past has led to attention. These are the response, and consequences. The response isthe child crying, and the attention that child gets is the reinforcing consequence. According to thistheory, people‟s behavior is formed by processes such as operant conditioning. Skinner putforward a “three term contingency model” which helped promote analysis of behavior based onthe “Stimulus—Response—Consequence Model” in which the critical question is: “Under whichcircumstances or antecedent „stimuli‟ does the organism engage in a particular behavior or„response‟, which in turn produces a particular „consequence‟?”

Richard Herrnstein extended this theory by accounting for attitudes and traits. An attitudedevelops as the response strength (the tendency to respond) in the presences of a group ofstimuli become stable. Rather than describing conditional traits in non-behavioral language,response strength in a given situation accounts for the environmental portion. Herrnstein also sawtraits as having a large genetic or biological component as do most modern behaviorists.

34 社会和阶层对行为的影响

Fair or unfair, desirable or undesirable, social distinctions are a salient part of almost every culture.The form of the distinctions varies with place and time, sometimes including rigid castes,sometimes tribal or clan hierarchies, sometimes a more flexible social class. Class distinctions aremade chiefly on the basis of wealth, education, and occupation, but they are also likely to beassociated with other subcultural differences, such as dress, dialect, and attitudes toward schooland work. These economic, political, and cultural distinctions are recognized by almost allmembers of a society—and resented by some of them.

The class into which people are born affects what language, diet, tastes, and interests they willhave as children, and therefore influences how they will perceive the social world. Moreover, class affects what pressures and opportunities people will experience and therefore affects what pathstheir lives are likely to take—including schooling, occupation, marriage, and standard of living.Still, many people live lives very different from the norm for their class.

35 理性选择理论

Rational choice theory, also known as rational action theory, is a framework for understanding andoften formally modeling social and economic behavior. It is the dominant theoretical paradigm inmicroeconomics. It is also central to modern political science and is used by scholars in otherdisciplines such as sociology. The “rationality” described by rational choice theory is differentfrom the colloquial and most philosophical uses of rationality. Although models of rational choiceare diverse, all assume individuals choose the best action according to stable preference functionsand constraints facing them. Most models have additional assumptions. Proponents of rationalchoice models do not claim that a model‟s assumptions are a full description of reality, only thatgood models can aid reasoning and provide help in formulating falsifiable hypotheses, whetherintuitive or not. Successful hypotheses are those that survive empirical tests.

36 人们为什么遵从社会规范

Since people are social beings, we must exchange with one another. We evolve norms to reducethe risk by making one another‟s behavior sufficiently predictable. (We are in a way programmedto know how to act, behave, or respond when interacting with each other). For example“: Hello sir,could you point me in the direction of the men‟s room?” This man asked this question to a complete stranger and he was following his injunctive norms(behaviors which are perceived as being approved of by other people) when asking thisquestion the man also predicted the response he would get. “Oh yes, the bathrooms are in theback left corner.” If these social norms were not pre-programmed in us like they are, this manwould have had a very hard time even with something as simple as asking directions.

We accept norms not only because our friends expect us to, but because we risk our self-respect ifwe deviate. Religious beliefs may be one contributor to why we might conform and follow norms.The phrase “I‟m not that kind of person” indicates that we have certain beliefs about properbehavior (Rodney Stark). Norms like these are generally taught to us as we grow up.

37 理想追随者的十六大原则

Stated principles of ideal followership:

1. Demonstrating respect

2. Thinking win/Win

3. Working within the system

4. Acting proactively

5. Appreciating differences

6. Striving toward a common goal (one shared with leaders)

7. Recognizing any authority that leaders may possess

8. Tailoring actions to accord with leaders‟ ideals

9. Making decisions based on a set of values

10. Enthusiastically working towards organizational goals while nevertheless remainingaccountable for results

11. Gaining the trust of leaders
12. Fostering enough independence to allow followers to achieve goals without completereliance on leaders
13. Requiring only high-level guidanceDemonstrating effectiveness when working in a group independentlyRecognizing the hierarchy of leadership while becoming a self-motivated mini-leaderProactively working to fulfill or exceed expectations

38 责任承担

Responsibility assumption is a doctrine in the personal growth field holding that each individualhas substantial or total responsibility for the events and circumstances that befall them in their life.While there is little that is notable about the notion that each person has at least some role inshaping their experience, the doctrine of responsibility assumption posits that the individual‟smental contribution to his or her own experience is substantially greater than is normally thought.“I must have wanted this” is the type of catchphrase used by adherents of this doctrine whenencountering situations, pleasant or unpleasant, to remind them that their own desires and choicesled to the present outcome.

The term responsibility assumption thus has a specialized meaning beyond the general concept oftaking responsibility for something, and is not to be confused with the general notion of making anassumption that a concept such as “responsibility” exists.

39 社会学习理论

Social learning theories propose that people internalize moral codes more through the process ofsocialization—learning behaviors through interaction with others—rather than through astage-by-stage development process. Specifically, social learning theorists maintain a youngperson learns how to behave based on how elders (primarily parent figures) respond to theperson‟s violations of and compliance with rules. Rewards for acceptable behavior and sanctions(penalties) for transgressions indicate what appropriate behaviors are.

40 决策的概念

Decision making is the cognitive process leading to the selection of a course of action amongseveral alternatives. Every decision making process produces a final choice. It can be an action oran opinion. It begins when we need to do something but know not what. Therefore, decisionmaking is a reasoning process which can be rational or irrational, can be based on explicitassumptions or tacit assumptions.
Structured rational decision making is an important part of all science-based professions, wherespecialists apply their knowledge in a given area to making informed decisions. For example,medical decision making often involves making a diagnosis and selecting an appropriate treatment.Some research using naturalistic methods shows, however, that in situations with higher timepressure, higher stakes, or increased ambiguities, experts use intuitive decision making rather thanstructured approaches, following a recognition primed decision approach to fit a set of indicatorsinto the expert‟s experience and immediately arrive at a satisfactory course of action withoutweighing alternatives.

41 自由意志

The question of free will is whether, and in what sense, rational agents exercise control over theiractions and decisions. Addressing this question requires understanding the relationship betweenfreedom and cause, and determining whether the laws of nature are causally deterministic. Thevarious philosophical positions taken differ on whether all events are determined ornot—determinism versus indeterminism—and also on whether freedom can coexist withdeterminism or not—compatibilism versus incompatibilism. So, for instance, hard deterministsargue that the universe is deterministic, and that this makes free will impossible.
The principle of free will has religious, ethical, and scientific implications. For example, in thereligious realm, free will may imply that an omnipotent divinity does not assert its power overindividual will and choices. In ethics, it may imply that individuals can be held morallyaccountable for their actions. In the scientific realm, it may imply that the actions of the body,including the brain and the mind, are not wholly determined by physical causality. The question offree will has been a central issue since the beginning of philosophical thought.

42 真正的自由及其两大要素
Real Freedom is a concept of freedom that expands upon notions of negative freedom byincorporating not simply institutional or other constraints on a person‟s choices, but also therequirements of physical reality, resources and personal capacity. To have real freedom, anindividual must:
1. Not be prevented from acting on his/her will (i.e. he/she must have traditional negativefreedom); and
2. Possess the resources or capacities actually to carry out his/her will.
Real freedom expands on negative freedom by adding the idea of actually being able to exercise acapacity or resource in the absence of constraint; but does not go as far as some ideas of positivefreedom, by refraining from appeal to self-government by a real, best, or higher self.