29 科技改变了社会关系
Technology, particularly the Internet, is definitely helping change social relations, but not in ways that its critics suggest. Castells describes the impact of the Internet as people organize themselvesinto a social network. “Networked individualism”, as he describes it,“is a social pattern, not a collection of isolated individuals.” Individuals will build networks, both on-line and off-line, based on their interests, values, affinities, and projects. Because of the capabilities of the Internet for communication, people will build virtual communities that are different from physical communities. These communities, however, are not necessarily less intense or less effective in binding and mobilizing people. Furthermore, a communication hybrid is now developing in our societies, bringing together both the physical and the virtual space as the material support of networked individualism.

30 科技是否导致了人情疏离
Given its negative effects on individuals, shouldn’t the Internet simply be banned? Technology is not the sole culprit. Robert Putnam has documented a decline in civic engagement and social participation in the US in the past 35 years, resulting in major consequences on both the societal and the individual level. This is a major concern. As Putnam writes, the quality of governance is determined by longstanding traditions of civic engagement (or its absence). Voter turnout, newspaper readership, membership in choral societies and football clubs...are the hallmarks of a successful region. In fact, historical analysis suggested that these networks of organized reciprocity and civic solidarity, far from being an epiphenomenon of socioeconomic modernization, were a precondition for it.

31 科学发明依赖于过去的知识积累
Individual scientific inventions do not simply spring out of the blue. They build on past accomplishments in an incremental manner and give a conscious form to the subconscious knowledge that society gathers over time. As the pioneer is more conscious than the surrounding community, his inventions normally meet with initial resistance which receded over time as his inventions gain wider acceptance. If the opposition is stronger than the pioneer, then the introduction of his invention gets delayed. In medieval times when guilds exercised tight control over their members, progress in medical invention was slow mainly because physicians were secretive about their remedies. When Denis Papin demonstrated his invention of a steam engine, German naval authorities refused to accept it, fearing it would lead to increased unemployment. John Kay, who developed a flying shuttle textile loom, was subject to physical intimidation by English weavers who feared the loss of their jobs. He had to flee to France where his invention was more favorably received. The widespread use of computers and application of bio-technology raises similar resistance among the public today. Whether the public receive an invention readily or resist depends on their awareness and willingness to entertain rapid change. Regardless of the response, technological inventions occur as part of overall social development and not as an isolated field of activity.

32 科学的公开性
A very broad issue affecting the neutrality of science concerns the areas over which science chooses to explore, so what part of the world and man is studied by science. Since the areas for science to investigate are theoretically infinite, the issue then arises as to what science should attempt to question or find out.
Philip Kitcher in his Science, Truth, and Democracy argues that scientific studies that attempt to show one segment of the population as being less intelligent, successful or emotionally backward compared to others have a political feedback effect which further excludes such groups from access to science. Thus such studies undermine the broad consensus required for good science by excluding certain people, and so proving themselves in the end to be unscientific.

33 科学解释
In addition to providing predictions about future events, we often take scientific theories to offer explanations for those that occur regularly or have already occurred. Philosophers have investigated a scientific theory that has successfully explained a phenomenon or what makes a scientific theory explanatory. One early and very influential theory of scientific explanation was put forward by Hemple and Oppenheim in 1948. Their Deductive-Nomological (D-N) model of explanation says that a scientific explanation succeeds by subsuming a phenomenon under a general law. Although ignored for a decade, this view was subjected to substantial criticism, resulting in several widely believed counter examples to the theory.
In addition to their D-N model, Hemple and Oppenheim offered other statistical models of explanation which would account for statistical sciences. These theories have received criticism as well. Salmon attempted to provide an alternative account for some of the problems with Hemple and Oppenheim’s model by developing his statistical relevance model. In addition to Salmon’s model, others have suggested that explanation is primarily motivated by unifying disparate phenomena or primarily motivated by providing the causal or mechanical histories leading up to the phenomenon (or phenomena of that type).

34 科学推理的可行性
The most powerful statements in science are those with the widest applicability. Newton’s Third Law—“for every action there is an opposite and equal reaction”—is a powerful statement because it applies to every action, anywhere, and at any time.
But it is not possible for scientists to have tested every incidence of an action, and found a reaction. How is it, then, that they can assert that the Third Law is in some sense true? They have, of course, tested many, many actions, and in each one have been able to find the corresponding reaction. But can we be sure that the next time we test the Third Law, it will be found to hold true?

35 科学现实主义和工具主义
Two central questions about science are (1) what are the aims of science and (2) how ought one interpret the results of science? Scientific realists claim that science aims at truth and that one ought to regard scientific theories as true, approximately true, or likely true. Conversely, a scientific antirealist or instrumentalist argues that science does not aim(or at least does not succeed) at truth and that we should not regard scientific theories as true. Some antirealists claim that scientific theories aim at being instrumentally useful and should only be regarded as useful, but not true, descriptions of the world. More radical antirealists, like Thomas Kuhn or Paul Feyerabend, have argued that scientific theories do not even succeed at this goal, but that later scientific theories offer no objective improvement over previous theories.

Realists often point to the success of recent scientific theories as evidence for the truth (or near truth) of our current theories. Anti-realists point to either the history of science, epistemic morals, or widely termed postmodern criticisms of objectivity as evidence against scientific realism. Some anti-realists attempt to explain the success of our theories without reference to truth while others deny that our current scientific theories are successful at all.

36 全球化
Technological development, from better transportation and carrier services to the telephone and mass media, has created a smaller, more integrated world. Now, the ICT revolution is making the world even smaller and more integrated. Communications, trade and employment, personal and political transactions are now occurring on a global scale, in real time, ignoring boundaries between states.
Nobel Laureate Joseph Stiglitz defines globalization as “...the closer integration of the countriesand peoples of the world which has been brought about by the enormous reduction of costs of transportation and communication, and the breaking down of artificial barriers to the flows of goods, services, capital, knowledge, and (to a lesser extent) people across borders”.
It is important to underscore that globalization is not just an economic phenomenon. It affects all aspects of life.
At least four factors have contributed to globalization: (1) technological change, particularly the ICT revolution; ( 2 ) the spread of market-based systems; ( 3 ) domestic politics —pro-globalization forces are more politically significant; and (4) inter-state rivalries.

37 人类使用技术的历史
People’s use of technology began with the conversion of natural resources into simple tools. The prehistorical discovery of the ability to control fire increased the available sources of food and the invention of the wheel helped humans in travelling in and controlling their environment. Recent technological developments, including the printing press, the telephone, and the Internet, have lessened physical barriers to communication and allowed humans to interact on a global scale. However, not all technology has been used for peaceful purposes; the development of weapons of ever-increasing destructive power has progressed throughout history, from clubs to nuclear weapons.

38 社会对技术的影响
Society also controls technology through the choices it makes. These choices not only include consumer demands; they also include:
1. The channels of distribution, how do products go from raw materials to consumption to disposal
2. The cultural beliefs regarding style, freedom of choice, consumerism, materialism, etc.

3. The economic values we place on the environment, individual wealth, government control, capitalism, etc.
4. The construction and shaping of technology includes the concept of choice (and not necessarily conscious choice). Choice is inherent in both the design of individual artifacts and systems, and in the making of those artifacts and systems.

The idea here is that a single technology may not emerge from the unfolding of a predetermined logic or a single determinant; technology could be a garden of forking paths, with different paths potentially leading to different technological outcomes. Therefore, choices could have differing implications for society and for particular social groups.

39 科技进步促进了休闲娱乐
Three channels of effect on leisure time of modern technology will be stressed here.
First, technological progress increases wages. On the one hand, an increase in real wages should motivate more work effort since the price of consumption goods in terms of forgone leisure has fallen. On the other hand, for a given level of work effort a rise in wages implies that individuals are wealthier. People may desire to use some of this increase in living standards to enjoy more leisure.
Second, the value of not working has also risen due to the advent of many new leisure goods. Leisure goods by their very nature are consuming time. Think about the impact of the following products: radio, monopoly, television, computer er, etc.
Third, other types of new household goods have reduced the need for housework. These household goods are time saving. Examples are: electric stove, frozen food, dishwasher, etc. Some goods can be both time-consuming or time-saving depending on the context: the telephone, IBM PC.

40 科学不良行为对科学的影响
The consequences of scientific fraud vary based on the severity of the fraud, the level of notice it receives, and how long it goes undetected. For cases of fabricated evidence, the consequences can be wide ranging, with others working to confirm (or refute) the false finding, or with research agendas being distorted to address the fraudulent evidence. The Piltdown Man fraud is a case in point: The significance of the bona-fide fossils being found was muted for decades because they disagreed with Piltdown Man and the pre-conceived notions that those faked fossils supported. In addition, the prominent paleontologist Arthur Smith Woodward spent time at Piltdown each year until he died trying to find more Piltdown Man remains. The misdirection of resources kept others from taking the real fossils more seriously and delayed the reaching of a correct understanding of human evolution.

41 发展批评论
Development criticism refers to far-reaching criticisms of modernization and its central aspects: modern technology, industrialization, capitalism and economic globalization. A closely related, overlapping concept is anti-modernism. Often development critics see modernization as harmful for both humans and the environment. Development-critical movements represent a wide range of critiques, including appeals to tradition, religion, spirituality, environmentalism, aesthetics, pacifism and agrarian virtues.

Environmental issues are important for development critics. Many of them first arrived at development-critical conclusions after recognizing modern society as a threat to the environment. Happiness is another central theme of development-critical writings. Modern societies, despite their goal-oriented complexity and amount of labor time, do not help people to reach happiness, according to some development critics. In their view, happiness may be harder to reach in modern society than in primitive ones.

42 人工智能的概念
The modern definition of artificial intelligence (or AI) is “the study and design of intelligent agents” where an intelligent agent is a system that perceives its environment and takes actions which maximizes its chances of success. John McCarthy, who coined the term in 1956, defines itas “the science and engineering of making intelligent machines”. Other names for the field havebeen proposed, such as computational intelligence, synthetic intelligence or computational rationality. The term artificial intelligence is also used to describe a property of machines or programs: the intelligence that the system demonstrates.
AI research uses tools and insights from many fields, including computer science, psychology, philosophy, neuroscience, cognitive science, linguistics, operations research, economics, control theory, probability, optimization and logic. AI research also overlaps with tasks such as robotics, control systems, scheduling, data mining, logistics, speech recognition, facial recognition and many others.

43 科技批评论
Technocriticism is a branch of critical theory devoted to the study of technological change. Technocriticism treats technological transformation as historically specific changes in personal and social practices of research, invention, regulation, distribution, promotion, appropriation, use, and discourse, rather than as an autonomous or socially indifferent accumulation of useful inventions, or as an uncritical narrative of linear “progress”, “development” or “innovation”.Technocriticism studies these personal and social practices in their changing practical and cultural significance. It documents and analyzes both their private and public uses, and often devotes special attention to the relations among these different uses and dimensions. Recurring themes intechnocritical discourse include the deconstruction of essentialist concepts such as “health”, “human”, “nature” or “norm”.