第一大类 社会发展类

1社会发展的三大理论

Inthe 19th century, three great classical theories of social and historicalchange were created: the sociocultural evolutionism, the social cycle theoryand the Marxist historical materialism theory. Those theories had one commonfactor: they all agreed that the history of humanity is pursuing a certainfixed path, most likely that of the social progress. Thus, each past event isnot only chronologically, but causally tied to the present and future events.Those theories postulated that by recreating the sequence of those events,sociology could discover the laws of history.

2社会发展阶段I： 殖民主义

Thefirst process was colonialism. Although imperial powers settled mostdifferences of opinion with their colonial subjects with force, increasedawareness of non-Western people raised new questions for European scholarsabout the nature of society and culture. Similarly, effective administrationrequired some degree of understanding of other cultures. Emerging theories ofsociocultural evolution allowed Europeans to organize their new knowledge in away that reflected and justified their increasing political and economicdomination of others: colonized people were less evolved, colonizing peoplewere more evolved. When the 17th-century, English philosopher Thomas Hobbesdescribed primeval man as living in conditions in which there are “noarts, no letters, no society” and his life as “solitary, poor, nasty, brutish,and short”, he was very much proclaiming a popular conception of the “savage”.Everything that was good and civilized resulted from the slow development outof this state. Even rationalistic philosophers like Voltaire implicitly assumedthat enlightenment gradually resulted in the upward progress of humankind.

3社会发展阶段II： 工业革命

Thesecond process was the Industrial Revolution and the rise of capitalism whichallowed and promoted continual revolutions in the means of production. Emergingtheories of sociocultural evolution reflected a belief that the changes inEurope wrought by the Industrial Revolution and capitalism were obviousimprovements. Industrialization, combined with the intense political changebrought about by the French Revolution, U.S. Constitution and PolishConstitution of May 3, 1791, which were paving the way for the dominance ofdemocracy, forced European thinkers to reconsider some of their assumptionsabout how society was organized.

4社会公正的概念

Socialjustice refers to the concept of a society in which justice is achieved inevery aspect of society, rather than merely the administration of law. Itgenerally refers to a society which affords individuals and groups fairtreatment and a just share of the benefits of it. It can also refer to thedistribution of advantages and disadvantages within a society.

5社会公正的内涵

Socialjustice is both a philosophical problem and an important issue in politics,religion and civil

society. Most individuals wish tolive in a just society, but different political ideologies have differentconceptions of what a “just society” actually is. The term “social justice” isoften employed by the political left to describe a society with a greaterdegree of economic egalitarianism, which may be achieved through progressivetaxation, income redistribution, or property redistribution. The right wingalso uses the term social justice, but generally believes that a just societyis best achieved through the operation of a free market, which they believeprovides equality of opportunity and promotes philanthropy and charity. Bothright and left tend to agree on the importance of rule of law, human rights,and some form of a welfare safety net.

6对社会公正的反对

Socialjustice may be unfeasible economically. Many water-poor countries haverecognized a “basic right to have drinkingwater”and then provided that accessaccordingly. This often resulted in water sources being over-used and thendecimated.

Onthe other hand, some scholars reject the very idea of social justice asmeaningless, religious, self-contradictory, and ideological, believing that torealize any degree of social justice is unfeasible, and that the attempt to doso must destroy all liberty. The most complete rejection of the concept ofsocial justice comes from the Friedrich Hayek of the Austrian School ofEconomics: “The phrase ‘socialjustice’is simply a semantic fraud fromthe same stable as People’s Democracy.”The purported goal ofsocial justice is to eliminate economic inequities, but because theseinequities are largely a result of individuals’ own choices, they can only becorrected by controlling said choices.

7对社会公正的批评

Criticismof the idea that there is an objective standard of social justice has come fromseveral circles. First, there are moral relativists （such as the Sophists）, who do not believe that thereis any kind of objective standard for justice in general. Second, there arecynics who believe that any ideal of social justice is ultimately a merejustification for the status quo. Third, there are libertarians who believethat social justice violates the non-aggression principle. Additionally,postmodernism has also developed its own critique of the concept of socialjustice.

Manyother people accept some of the basic principles of social justice, such as theidea that all human beings have a basic level of value, but disagree with theelaborate conclusions that may or may not follow from this. One example is thestatement by H. G. Wells that all people are “equally entitled to the respectof their fellowmen”.

8社会契约与契约理论

Accordingto the will theory of contract, which was dominant in the 19th century andstill exerts a strong influence, a contract is not presumed valid unless allparties agree to it voluntarily, either tacitly or explicitly, withoutcoercion. A supposed social contract cannot be used to justify governmentalactions such as taxation, because government will initiate force against anyonewho does not wish to enter into such a contract. As a result, such an agreementis not voluntary and therefore cannot be considered a legitimate contract atall.

However,the philosophical concept of social contract does not address the same issuesas present-day juridical contract theory, making the name “socialcontract”potentially misleading. For thisreason some thinkers preferred the term “socialcompact”. The key notion of social

contract or compact is that theindividual consents by entering or remaining on the dominion of an existingsociety, which is usually a geographic territory, in much the same way one doeswhen entering or remaining in someone’s household or private property. Peopleare normally brought up from childhood to respect the boundaries of societies,including families, and the rules made by them for their territorial spaces.That is part of the socialization development process.

9对社会契约的违反

Thesocial contract and the civil rights it gives us are neither “natural” norpermanently fixed. Rather, the contract itself is a means towards an end—thebenefit of all—and is only legitimate to the extent that it meets the generalinterest. Therefore, when failings are found in the contract, we renegotiate tochange the terms, using methods such as elections and legislature.

Sincerights come from agreeing to the contract, those who simply choose not tofulfill their contractual obligations, such as by committing crimes, risklosing some of their rights, and the rest of society can be expected to protectitself against the actions of such outlaws. To be a member of society is toaccept responsibility for following its rules, along with the threat ofpunishment for violating them. Most of us are comfortable with laws punishingbehavior that harms people because we are concerned about others harming us anddon’t plan on harming others. In this way, society works by “mutualcoercion, mutually agreed upon”.

10社会理论： 机会均等

Inthe pursuit of a meritocracy, pursuit of equal opportunity is essential. Equalopportunity is often considered separate from basic freedoms. For example,freedom of speech is usually not within the realm of equal opportunity butrather within basic rights.

Equalopportunity consists of additional elements crucial to a meritocracy, such as:

1.Consideration for employment, housing, and education free from immutablecharacteristics such as race, age, or disability;

2.Equal access to goods and services from the government.

11 实现机会均等是困难的

In practice, methods for fulfilling equal opportunity can be less thancomplete or ineffective. Indeed, the means by which to measure the success orfailure of equal opportunity policies is unclear. Opportunity itself is oftendifficult—if not impossible—to accurately measure. Thus, in practice, equalopportunity is said to exist when people with similar abilities reach similarresults （equality ofoutcome） after doing asimilar amount of work. Indeed, equal opportunity and equality of outcome areoften seen as complementary. Other societal traditions interfere with equalityof opportunity, however; for example, as long as wealth, and thusopportunities, can be passed from one generation to another throughinheritance, it is unclear how equality of outcome would come about for twochildren of similar ability, one born into the elite class and one born intothe middle or lower class.

12 社会福利

A social welfare provision refers to any program which seeks to provide aminimum level of income, service or other support for disadvantaged people suchas the poor, the elderly, the disabled, students, unpaid workers such asmothers and other caregivers, and underprivileged

groups. Social welfare programs areundertaken by governments as well as non-governmental organizations （NGOs）. Social welfarepayments and services are typically provided free of charge or at a nominalfee, and are funded by the state, benefactors or by compulsory enrollment ofthe poor themselves.

13 福利社会

States or nations that provide comprehensive social welfare programs areoften identified as having a welfare state. In such countries, access to socialwelfare services is often considered a basic and inalienable right to those inneed. In many cases these are considered natural rights, and indeed thatposition is borne out by the UN Convention on Social and Economic Rights andother treaty documents. Accordingly, many people refer to welfare within acontext of social justice, making an analogy to rights of fair treatment orrestraint in criminal justice.

14 七大社会福利类型

Examples of social welfare services include the following:

1. Compulsory superannuation savings programs.

2. Compulsory social insurance programs, often based on income, to pay forthe social welfare service being provided: these are often incorporated into thetaxation system and may be inseparable from income tax.

3. Pensions or other financial aid, including social security and taxrelief, to those with low incomes or inability to meet basic living costs,especially those who are raising children, elderly, unemployed, injured, sickor disabled.

4. Free or low cost nursing, medical and hospital care for those who aresick, injured or unable to care for themselves. This may also include freeantenatal and postnatal care. Services may be provided in the community or amedical facility.

5. Free or low cost public education for all children, and financial aid,sometimes as a scholarship or pension, sometimes in the form of a suspensoryloan, to students attending academic institutions or undertaking vocational training.

6. The state may also fund or operate social work and community basedorganizations that provide services that benefit disadvantaged people in thecommunity.

7. Welfare money paid to persons, from a government, who are in need offinancial assistance but who are unable to work for pay.

15 司法机关和社会福利

Police, criminal courts, prisons, and other parts of the justice systemare not generally considered part of the social welfare system, while childprotection services are. There are close links between social welfare andjustice systems as instruments of social control. Those involved in the socialwelfare system are generally treated much like those in the justice system.Assistance given to those in the justice system is more about allowing an individualto receive fair treatment rather than social welfare. While being involved inthe justice system often excludes an individual from social welfare assistance,those exiting the justice system, such as released prisoners, and families ofthose involved in the justice system are often eligible for social welfareassistance because of increased needs and increased risk of recidivism if theassistance is not provided. In some countries, improvements in social welfareservices have been justified by savings being made in

the justice system, as well as personalhealthcare and legal costs.