1 亚里士多德观点: 知识的定义
“We suppose ourselves to possess unqualified scientific knowledge of a thing, as opposed to knowing it in the accidental way in which the sophist knows, when we think that we know the cause on which the fact depends, as the cause of that fact and of no other, and, further, that the fact could not be other than it is. Now that scientific knowing is something of this sort is evident—witnesses both those who falsely claim it and those who actually possess it, since the former merely imagine themselves to be, while the latter are also actually, in the condition described. Consequently the proper object of unqualified scientific knowledge is something whichcannot be other than it is.”
—Aristotle, Posterior Analytics (Book 1 Part 2)

2 关于知识定义的争议
The definition of knowledge is a matter of on-going debate among philosophers in the field of epistemology. The classical definition, described but not ultimately endorsed by Plato, has it that in order for there to be knowledge at least three criteria must be fulfilled; that in order to count as knowledge, a statement must be justified, true, and believed. Some claim that these conditions are not sufficient, as Gettier case examples allegedly demonstrate. There are a number of alternatives proposed, including Robert Nozick’s arguments for a requirement that knowledge “tracks the truth” and Simon Blackburn’s additional requirement that we do not want to say that those who meet any of these conditions “through a defect, flaw, or failure” have knowledge. Richard Kirkham suggests that our definition of knowledge requires that the believer’s evidence is such that it logically necessitates the truth of the belief.

In contrast to this approach, Wittgenstein observed, following Moore’s paradox, that one can say“He believes it, but it isn’t so”, but not “He knows it, but it isn’t so”. He goes on to argue that these do not correspond to distinct mental states, but rather to distinct ways of talking about conviction. What is different here is not the mental state of the speakers, but the activity in which they are engaged. For example, on this account, to know that the kettle is boiling is not to be in a particular state of mind, but to perform a particular task with the statement that the kettle is boiling.Wittgenstein sought to bypass the difficulty of definition by looking to the way “knowledge” isused in natural languages. He saw knowledge as a case of a family resemblance.

3 知识的概念
Knowledge is defined (Oxford English Dictionary) variously as (1) expertise, and skills acquired by a person through experience or education; the theoretical or practical understanding of a subject, (2) what is known in a particular field or in total; facts and information or (3)awareness or familiarity gained by experience of a fact or situation. Philosophical debates in general start with Plato’s formulation of knowledge as“justified true belief”. There is however no single agreed definition of knowledge presently, nor any prospect of one, and there remain numerous competing theories.
Knowledge acquisition involves complex cognitive processes: perception, learning, communication, association and reasoning. The term knowledge is also used to mean the confident understanding of a subject with the ability to use it for a specific purpose.

4 感知的概念
Perception is defined as a process by which organisms interpret and organize sensation to produce a meaningful experience of the world. Sensation usually refers to the immediate, relatively unprocessed result of stimulation of sensory receptors in the eyes, ears, nose, tongue, or skin. Perception, on the other hand, better describes one’s ultimate experience of the world and typically involves further processing of sensory input. In practice, sensation and perception are virtually impossible to separate, because they are part of one continuous process. Our sense organs translate physical energy from the environment into electrical impulses processed by the brain. For example, light, in the form of electromagnetic radiation, causes receptor cells in our eyes to activate and send signals to the brain. But we do not understand these signals as pure energy. The process of perception allows us to interpret them as objects, events, people, and situations. Without the ability to organize and interpret sensations, life would seem like a meaningless jumble of colors, shapes, and sounds. A person without any perceptual ability would not be able to recognize faces, understand language, or avoid threats. Such a person would not survive for long. In fact, many species of animals have evolved exquisite sensory and perceptual systems that aid their survival.

5 由感觉到知觉

Organizing raw sensory stimuli into meaningful experiences involves cognition, a set of mental activities that includes thinking, knowing, and remembering. Knowledge and experience are extremely important for perception, because they help us make sense of the input to our sensory systems. You could probably read the text, but not as easily as when you read letters in their usual orientation. Knowledge and experience allowed you to understand the text. You could read the words because of your knowledge of letter shapes, and maybe you even have some prior experience in reading text upside down. Without knowledge of letter shapes, you would perceive the text as meaningless shapes, just as people who do not know Chinese or Japanese see the characters of those languages as meaningless shapes. Reading, then, is a form of visual perception. Note that in the example above, you did not stop to read every single letter carefully. Instead, you probably perceived whole words and phrases. You may have also used context to help you figure out what some of the words may be. For example, recognizing upside may have helped you predict down, because the two words often occur together.

6 获取知识的四大条件
The four requirements for knowledge are: S knows that P if (1) S knows that P is true; (2) S believes that P is true; (3) S is justified in believing that P is true; (4) S’s justification in believing that P does not rest on any false beliefs. Without these requirements, you cannot have knowledge. Your thought may still be true, however, you cannot know something if it is possible it is not true. This brings us to how you know if what you think is true. However, it is impossible for us to have this certainty. Infallible knowledge is impossible for humans to obtain based on the fact that there is always a chance that we are mistaken. Yet, the Epistemist argues: the refutation of skepticism is pure and simple. I know that there is a piece of paper in front of me, for I see a piece of paper in front of me. Skepticism says that I do not know this. Therefore skepticism is wrong. However, just as in the Epistemist’s example, the only way we can obtain knowledge is through our five senses. Whether we learn something from a class lecture, reading a book, or touching something, we are relying on our senses to convey the knowledge to us.

7 知识的交流和传播
Symbolic representations can be used to indicate meaning and can be thought of as a dynamic process. Hence the transfer of the symbolic representation can be viewed as one ascription process whereby knowledge can be transferred. Other forms of communication include imitation, narrative exchange along with a range of other methods. There is no complete theory of knowledge transfer or communication.
While many would agree that one of the most universal and significant tools for the transfer of knowledge would be the different systems of writing, argument over the usefulness of the written word exists, however, with some scholars skeptical of its impact on societies. The scholar Socrates recounts the story of Thamus the Egyptian king and Theuth the inventor of the written word. Inthis story, Theuth presents his new invention “writing” to King Thamus, telling Thamus that his new invention “will improve both the wisdom and memory of the Egyptians”. King Thamus isskeptical of this new invention and rejects it as a tool of recollection rather than retained knowledge. He argues that the written word will infect the Egyptian people with fake knowledge as they will be able to attain facts and stories from an external source and will no longer be forced to mentally retain large quantities of knowledge themselves.

Andrew Robinson also highlights, in his work The Origins of Writing, the possibility for writing to be used to spread false information and therefore the written word to decrease social knowledge. People are often internalizing new information which they perceive to be knowledge but are in reality fill their minds with false knowledge.

8 创新的定义
A convenient definition of innovation from an organizational perspective is given by Luecke and Katz (2003), who wrote: “Innovation is generally understood as the introduction of a new thing or method. Innovation is the embodiment, combination, or synthesis of knowledge in original,relevant, valued new products, processes, or services.”
Innovation typically involves creativity, but is not identical to it: innovation involves acting on the creative ideas to make some specific and tangible difference in the domain in which the innovation occurs. For example, Amabile (1996) propose: “All innovation begins with creative ideas. We define innovation as the successful implementation of creative ideas within an organization. In this view, creativity by individuals and teams is a starting point for innovation; the first is necessarybut not sufficient condition for the second”.
For innovation to occur, something more than the generation of a creative idea or insight is required: the insight must be put into action to make a genuine difference, resulting in, for example, new or altered business processes within the organization, or changes in the products and services provided.

9 创新的特点
A further characterization of innovation is as an organizational or management process. For example, Davila (2006), write: “Innovation, like many business functions, is a management process that requires specific tools, rules, and discipline.”
From this point of view, the emphasis is moved from the introduction of specific novel and useful ideas to the general organizational processes and procedures for generating, considering, and acting on such insights leading to significant organizational improvements in terms of improved or new business products, services, or internal processes.

10 创新者的八大特点
A 2005/6 MIT survey of innovation in technology found a number of characteristics common to innovators working in that field.

They are not troubled by the idea of failure.

They realize that failure can be learned from and that the “failed” technology can later be

reused for other purposes.
3. They know innovation requires that one works in advanced areas where failure is a real possibility.
4. Innovators are curious about what is happening in a myriad of disciplines, not only their own specialism.

Innovators are open to third-party experiments with their products.

They recognize that a useful innovation must be “robust”, flexible and adaptable.

Innovators delight in spotting a need that we don’t even know we harbor, and then fulfilling

that need with a new innovation, and as such.

8. Innovators like to make products that are immediately useful to their first users.

11 创新的九大类型
Scholars have identified at a variety of classifications for types innovations. Here is an unordered ad-hoc list of examples:
1. Business model innovation involves changing the way business is done in terms of capturing value, e.g. Compaq vs. Dell, hub and spoke airlines vs. Southwest, and Hertz/Avis vs. Enterprise. 2. Marketing innovation is the development of new marketing methods with improvement in product design or packaging, product promotion or pricing.
3. Organizational innovation involves the creation or alteration of business structures, practices, and models, and may therefore include process, marketing and business model innovation.
4. Process innovation involves the implementation of a new or significantly improved production or delivery method.
5. Product innovation involves the introduction of a new good or service that is new or substantially improved. This might include improvements in functional characteristics, technical abilities, ease of use, or any other dimension.
6. Service innovation refers to service product innovation which might be, compared to goods product innovation or process innovation, relatively less involving technological advance but more interactive and information-intensive, mainly due to the characteristics of services per se. This type of innovation can be found both in manufacturing and service firms since they can, particularly obviously at present, provide services to customers.
7. Supply chain innovation occurs in the sourcing of input products from suppliers and the delivery of output products to customers.
8. Substantial innovation introduces a different product or service within the same line, such as the movement of a candle company into marketing the electric light bulb.
9. Financial innovation: New financial services and products are developed, by combining basic financial attributes (ownership, risk-sharing, liquidity, credit) in progressive innovative ways, as well as reactive exploration of borders and strength of tax law. Through a cycle of development, directive compliance is being sharpened on opportunities, so new financial services and products are continuously shaped and progressed to be adopted. The dynamic spectrum of financial innovation, where business processes, services and products are adapted and improved so new valuable chains emerge, therefore may be seen to involve most of the above mentioned types of innovation.

12 两种层次的创新
As innovation in specific technologies, services or methods that are of interest at firm level, scholars such as Christopher Freeman have proposed two levels of innovation that are important at an industry or economy level:
1. New technological systems (systemic innovations) give rise to new industrial sectors, and induce major change across several branches of the economy. These systemic innovations are based on a range of radical and incremental socio-technical innovation.
2. Technological revolutions or new techno-economic paradigms refer to clusters of innovations that can change the whole economy, corresponding to Joseph Schumpeter’s “creative gales of destruction”. These revolutions can take decades to occur, as they involve massive innovation of

economic, social and cultural practices.

13 创新和发明的区别
“An important distinction is normally made between invention and innovation. Invention is the first occurrence of an idea for a new product or process, while innovation is the first attempt tocarry it out into practice.”
It is useful, when conceptualizing innovation, to consider whether other words suffice. Recent authors point out that invention—the creation of new tools or the novel compilation of existing tools—is often confused with innovation. Many product and service enhancements may fall more rigorously under the term improvement. Change and creativity are also words that may often be substituted for innovation. What, then, is innovation that makes it necessary to have a different word from these others, or is it a catch-all word, a loose synonym? Much of the current business literature blurs the concept of innovation with value creation, value extraction and operational execution. In this view, an innovation is not an innovation until someone successfully implements and makes money on an idea. Extracting the essential concept of innovation from these other closely linked notions is no easy thing.
One emerging approach is to use these other notions as the constituent elements of innovation as an action: Innovation occurs when someone uses an invention—or uses existing tools in a new way—to change how the world works, how people organize themselves, and how they conduct their lives.
Note in this view inventions may be concepts, physical devices or any other set of things that facilitate an action. An innovation in this light occurs whether or not the act of innovating succeeds in generating value for its champions. Innovation is distinct from improvement in that it causes society to reorganize. It is distinct from problem solving and is perhaps more rigorously seen as new problem creation. And in this view, innovation applies whether the act generates positive or negative results.

14 创新及其目的
The term innovation may refer to both radical and incremental changes to products, processes or services. The often unspoken goal of innovation is to solve a problem. Innovation is an important topic in the study of economics, business, technology, sociology, and engineering. Since innovation is also considered a major driver of the economy, the factors that lead to innovation are also considered to be critical to policy makers.
In the organizational context, innovation may be linked to performance and growth through improvements in efficiency, productivity, quality, competitive positioning, market share, etc. All organizations can innovate, for example, hospitals, universities, and local governments.
While innovation typically adds value, innovation may also have a negative or destructive effect as new developments clear away or change old organizational forms and practices. Organizations that do not innovate effectively may be destroyed by those that do. Hence innovation typically involves risk. A key challenge in innovation is maintaining a balance between process and product innovations where process innovations tend to involve a business model which may develop shareholder satisfaction through improved efficiencies while product innovations develop customer support however at the risk of costly R&D that can erode shareholder returns.
Four commonly accepted types of innovation are product, process, position and paradigm.

15 创造力与创新
Through these varieties of viewpoints, creativity is typically seen as the basis for innovation, and innovation as the successful implementation of creative ideas within an organization. From this point of view, creativity may be displayed by individuals, but innovation occurs in the organizational context only.
It should be noted, however, that the term “innovation” is used by many authors rather interchangeably with the term “creativity” when discussing individual and organi-zational creative activity. As Davila (2006) comment, “Often, in common parlance, the words creativity and innovation are used interchangeably. They shouldn’t be, because while creativity implies coming up with ideas, it’s the “bringing ideas to life”...that makes innovation the distinct undertaking it is.”
The distinctions between creativity and innovation discussed above are by no means fixed or universal in the innovation literature. They are however observed by a considerable number of scholars in innovation studies.

16 创造性思维的作用
When the mind engages in pure creative thinking it comes up with new thoughts and ideas. When it applies itself to society it can come up with new organizations. When it turns its attention to the study of nature it discovers the laws and mechanisms by which nature operates. When it applies itself to technology it comes up with new discoveries and practical inventions that boost productivity. Technical creativity has had an erratic course through history, with some intense periods of creative output followed by some dull and inactive periods. However the period since 1700 has been marked by an intense burst of technological creativity that is multiplying human capacities exponentially.