17 毁坏性创新和可持续性创新
How low-end disruption occurs over time? More recently the concepts of disruptive vs. sustaining innovation have been popularized, where innovation is often characterized by its impact on existing markets or businesses. Sustaining innovations allows organizations to continue to approach markets the same way, such as the development of a faster or more fuel efficient car. Disruptive innovations on the other hand, significantly change a market or product category, such as the invention of a cheap, safe personal flying machine that could replace cars.
Prof. Clayton M. Christensen of the Harvard Business School maintained a data base of innovative changes in the production and sale of hard-disks from 1975 to 1995. There were 116 new technologies introduced, 111 of which were sustaining in nature, and every established firm in the industry was able to copy or replicate those innovations with 100% success. (Sustaining innovations also tend to be evolutionary.) In contrast there were 5 disruptive innovations. None of the disruptive products involved any new technology, yet for the established firms in the industry the adoption rate in the disruptive technologies was zero.
For the leading firms, the new technologies offered their existing customers little advantage. The success of the disruptive technology often promised lower profit margins to established firms. The decision maker’s values and the goals of the firm forbid giving serious consideration to technologies that will destroy an established market. These disruptive technologies were adopted by small firms that were not established in the market, and for whom adoption of the disruptive innovation represented new opportunity.

18 积累性创新
Innovation studies have traditionally conceived of two types of innovation to nurture revenues by effectively growing market share: Incremental Innovation and Radical Innovation.
Incremental innovations is a step forward along a technology trajectory, or from the known to the unknown, with little uncertainty about outcomes and success and is generally minor improvements made by those working day to day with existing methods and technology (both process and product), responding to short term goals. Most innovations are incremental innovations. A value-added business process, involves making minor changes over time to sustain the growth of a company without making sweeping changes to product lines, services, or markets in which competition currently exists.

19 经济创新的五大内涵
Joseph Schumpeter defined economic innovation in 1934:
1. The introduction of a new good—that is one with which consumers are not yet familiar—or of a new quality of a good.
2. The introduction of a new method of production, which need by no means to be founded upon a scientifically new discovery, and can also exist in a new way of handling a commodity commercially.
3. The opening of a new market, which is a market into which the particular branch of manufacture of the country in question has not previously entered, whether or not this market has existed before.
4. The conquest of a new source of supply of raw materials or half-manufactured goods, again irrespective of whether this source already exists or whether it has first to be created.
5. The carrying out of the new organization of any industry, like the creation of a monopoly position (for example through trustification) or the breaking up of a monopoly position.

20 科技创新
Technological product and process (TPP) innovations comprise implemented technol-ogically new products and processes and significant technological improvements in products and processes. A TPP innovation has been implemented if it has been introduced on the market (product innovation) or used within a production process (process innovation). TPP innovations involve a series of scientific, technological, organizational, financial and commercial activities. The TPP innovating firm is one that has implemented technologically new or significantly technologically improved products or processes during the period under review.

21 突破性创新
Innovation studies have traditionally conceived of two types of innovation to nurture revenues by effectively growing market share: Incremental innovation and breakthrough, disruptive or radical innovation.
Radical innovation refers to launching an entirely novel product or service rather than providing improved products & services along the same lines as currently. The uncertainty of breakthrough

innovations means that seldom do companies achieve their breakthrough goals this way, but sometimes breakthrough innovation does work and the rewards can be tremendous. It involves larger leaps of understanding, perhaps demanding a new way of seeing the whole problem, probably taking a much larger risk than many people involved are happy about. There is often considerable uncertainty about future outcomes. There may be considerable opposition to the proposal and questions about the ethics, practicality or cost of the proposal may be raised. People may question if this is, or is not, an advancement of a technology or process. Radical innovation involves considerable change in basic technologies and methods, created by those working outside mainstream industry and outside existing paradigms.

22 共同学习: 角色分配
Assigning roles may also help to ease the imbalance of effort. The students who don’t contribute enough effort should first be encouraged by their groups. If this proves unsuccessful, the instructor should step in and mediate. It is absolutely unfair to punish a group for the ineffectiveness of one member. Students should do everything possible to remain a cooperative and cohesive unit, but if all attempts fail they should be allowed a chance to rebuild a new unit. It should also never be the responsibility of the strongest member of the team to carry the others. The instructor can not assume that all group conflicts should be resolved alone. Classroom modeling of effective group work and role-playing of conflict situations should be directed by the instructor.
Many years of research and numerous studies can not be denied. Cooperative learning is an effective method for understanding and retaining information. Industry experts can not be ignored when they state that being able to work effectively in a team is an imperative skill. Cooperative learning is not a replacement for the classroom teacher. It is intended to complement the direct instruction by causing students to be confident thinkers and active learners.

23 共同学习的优势: 培养合作精神
Intelligence is simply not enough in real world occupations. There are a limited number of university courses that solely instruct students on the etiquette of working cooperatively. It is necessary therefore, to teach these skills within the framework of all content areas. High achieving and shy students will also find that their grades may improve by being involved in a cooperative process.
There are many road blocks that may occur throughout the journey to cooperative learning. Not all students take their responsibilities seriously enough. Many feel that their slack will be picked up by the others in the group. Some students may be too strong leaders and stifle the contributions of the other members of the team.
Conflict is a natural by-product of cooperation. When students are asked to work together, it is with the intent that they will each provide a differing view and/or opinion. When differing opinions are joined together to create one product, conflict is sure to arise. Conflict can be a very healthy springboard to learning. When students dialogue and debate their opinions they might reinforce their ideas or dismiss them. The ability to listen and be flexible to new views is absolutely essential to the success of a group.

24 共同学习的优缺点
Cooperative learning, or student-centered instruction, is not a new concept. It has been utilized in nearly all academic settings and grade levels for the past decade. This group approach to learning promotes improved academic achievement, better attendance, higher motivation, and an increased interest for the subject and classmates. Industry specialists have deemed the ability to work well with others one of the most important skills necessary for success. Research and studies have proven its effectiveness; however the process is not without its critics. Students often resist the responsibility for learning that is placed upon their shoulders. They may resent the active role that they are expected to take on. Personality conflicts within the group may also contribute to a general feeling of malcontent. It is the role of the instructor to initially guide the groups, and then monitor their progress in order to ensure maximum learning.

25 共同学习和教师指导
The cooperative approach to learning is not intended to replace direct instruction from the teacher. It should be used to complement the direct instruction by affording the students the opportunity to respond to open-ended questions, role-play, and brainstorm. When several students tackle the same problem, they may use a variety of methods. Watching someone arrive at a solution in a differing manner is beneficial as a learner. When students explain the process that they used to arrive at a solution, they not only teach the other members of the group, but also reinforce their own knowledge. Studies have proven that the best way to retain information is to teach it to others. Not only is the direct instruction received, but it is practiced, processed and further understood. Students often question the concept of being forced to work with others to achieve a goal that they feel they could easily achieve alone. Those who are academically gifted or are extremely shy are difficult to convince. The facts however state that most employers require team work to resolve issues. Many occupations revolve their practices around working together. If a student has never been guided through this method, he/she may fall short of being competent enough to do the job well.

26 学习动机
Motivation is an internal state that activates, guides and sustains behavior. Educational psychology research on motivation is concerned with the volition or will that students bring to a task, their level of interest and intrinsic motivation, the personally held goals that guide their behavior, and their belief about the causes of their success or failure.
A form of attribution theory describes how students’ beliefs about the causes of academic success or failure affect their emotions and motivations. For example, when students attribute failure to lack of ability, and ability is perceived as uncontrollable, they experience the emotions of shame and embarrassment and consequently decrease effort and show poorer performance. In contrast, when students attribute failure to lack of effort, and effort is perceived as controllable, they experience the emotion of guilt and consequently increase effort and show improved performance.

27 学习的内在动机和外在动机
Ideally, motivation should be intrinsic. Students should want to study the subject for its own sake or for the sense of accomplishment in learning something new. Since many students are not intrinsically motivated, however, extrinsic rewards can sometimes offer a first step toward increased motivation. Human beings experience all three of these motivational states at one time or another. Teachers must acknowledge the experiences of these motivational sets in the classroom and implement individualized instruction in order for students to encounter learning at its highest quality. In order to tailor our instructional practices toward developing intrinsically motivated students in the classroom, the use of extrinsic rewards must be carefully analyzed and measured.

28 学习的三大动机类型
Humanistic behavior and learning techniques are viewed from many different positions of psychological theories. In order for a teacher to effectively apply these psychological principles in their classroom, they must become knowledgeable in the various conflicting theories. Looking at the theoretical aspect of motivation to learn provides background information about the basic nature of different learning processes. The locus of control in motivation is the subject area where separate theoretical views come into play. People have either an internal locus of control, an external locus of control, or are simply amotivated. Intrinsic motivation is a state where the relevance for the learner of the content of the material is the main reason for learning. Extrinsic motivation for learning is a state where the reasons for the learning effort have nothing to do with the content of the learning material. A good learning performance serves only as a means for achieving some desired end result. Amotivated people tend to be passive and non-responsive. They seem to believe that they cannot have a meaningful impact on their environment, so they tend not to behave. They frequently feel helpless and are easily upset. Their learning is slow and seems to be painful. The question of how people learn divides learning theorists into one of three major groups: behavioral (classical and operant conditioning), cognitive (insight, latent and observational learning), and eclectic (combinations of behavioral and cognitive theories).

29 动机理论在学习实践中的折衷应用
The eclectic view of the concept of motivation to learn must then be acknowledged, because even though it is ideal to be intrinsically motivated, to discard implementation of extrinsic forms of motivation or avoid the fact that some students will be amotivated at times would not be realistic. After reviewing behavioral and cognitive theories of learning, it appears to be obvious that the most effective measure to be taken to motivate students to learn would be to implement the best parts of each of the mentioned theoretical concepts. Behaviorists make a strong argument for limiting the study of learning to observable behavior that can be counted and analyzed for its meaning. Observable behavior is easy to validate and changes are recognizable. But from the cognitive perspective, there is more to learning than stimulus-response correlation. This involves insight, creativity, drawing conclusions, and problem-solving. By customizing these theories to use in the classroom, teachers can begin to understand why it is easy for intrinsic motivation to learn can be undermined and then take action to mend the problem.

30 积极学习的实践
Bonwell and Eison(1991)suggested learners work in pairs, discuss materials while role-playing, debate, engage in case study, take part in cooperative learning, or produce short written exercises, etc. While it makes sense to use these techniques as a “follow up” exercise, it does not makesense to use them to introduce material. However, it is suggested that instructors guide their students during the early stages of learning, and then later, let them practice their new learned skills or apply new information.

Active learning exercises are only suggested as a review of previously covered subject matter, and should only be used with students that already have a good understanding of the material. They should not be used as an introduction to new material.
While practice is useful to reinforce learning, problem solving is not always suggested. John Sweller (1988) suggests solving problems can even have negative influence on learning, instead he suggests that learners should study worked-examples, because this is a more efficient method of schema acquisition. So instructors are cautioned to give learners some basic or initial instruction first, perhaps to be followed up with an activity based upon the above methods.

31 积极学习的三大形式
Examples of “active learning” activities include:
1. A class discussion may be held in person or in an online environment. Certainly all would agree that these discussions be held between prepared, knowledgeable participants.
2. A think-pair-share activity is when learners take a minute to ponder the previous lesson, later to discuss it with one or more of their peers, finally to share it with the class as part of a formal discussion. It is during this formal discussion that the instructor should clarify misconceptions.
3. A short written exercise that is often used is the “one minute paper”. This is a good way toreview materials.

32 行为主义的动机理论
Behaviorism, in a contemporary sense, does not rely on solely stimulus/response motives as does classical conditioning. B.F. Skinner developed the concept of behaviorism that focuses on reinforcement as the only factor necessary to explain motivation. This division of behaviorism is classified as operant conditioning. Operant conditioning is more useful in explaining our voluntary behavior and is considerably more relevant to the problems of motivation. The basic tenet of operant conditioning is that behavior is shaped by its end result. The concept of consequences implies some system of reward or punishment, some form of pleasure or pain, some type of positive or negative reinforcement. This whole concept of operant conditioning supports the theoretical view of extrinsic motivation. Cognitive theories, on the other hand, emphasize the point that our behavior is not determined by discriminative or reinforcing stimuli in and of themselves but by our perceptions or interpretations of those stimuli. This implies that in a classroom situation, learning depends not only on external stimuli such as the explanations, demands, and expectations of teachers but more so on what those stimuli mean to us.
Cognitive psychology places a greater stress on the process of learning than it does on the outcomes and tends to rely more heavily on intrinsic rather than extrinsic forms of motivation. William Glasser played an essential role in intrinsic motivation of learning through the development of the control theory. The control theory emphasizes the idea that everything people think, do, and feel is generated by what happens inside of them.