33 学习动机: 目标影响学习方式
Motivational theories also explain how learners’ goals affect the way that they engage with academic tasks. Those who have mastery goals strive to increase their ability and knowledge. Those who have performance approach goals strive for high grades and seek opportunities to demonstrate their abilities. Those who have performance avoidance goals are driven by fear of failure and avoid situations where their abilities are exposed. Research has found that mastery goals are associated with many positive outcomes such as persistence in the face of failure, preference for challenging tasks, creativity and intrinsic motivation. Performance avoidance goals are associated with negative outcomes such as poor concentration while studying, disorganized studying, less self-regulation, shallow information processing and test anxiety. Performance approach goals are associated with positive outcomes, and some negative outcomes such as an unwillingness to seek help and shallow information processing.

34 量体裁衣的外在奖励
As stated before, if extrinsic reinforcement is used incorrectly, the students’ enthusiasm and inner desire to learn can be incapacitated. This undermining occurs because extrinsic rewards create a dependency between the behavior and the reward. The answer to this problem lies in the nature of rewards and communications which have either one of two aspects: controlling or informational. The function of the controlling aspect is to bring about a certain behavioral result that is desired by the one who is giving the reward. The function of the informational aspect is to provide information to the recipient that is relevant to their performance. Even though every reward contains these two aspects, the conveyance of the reward determines its effects on intrinsic motivation.
In an experiment where two groups of subjects were paid prior to completing a task. One group was paid controllingly and the other was paid informationally. The group of subjects that were paid informationally was more intrinsically motivated to complete the task. This experiment supports the fact that informational reinforcement enhances intrinsic motivation. This idea can easily be applied to the classroom with use of both tangible and verbal rewards. The important point from the studies mentioned is that the effect of rewards and communications on intrinsic motivation depends on whether they are interpreted by the recipients as being primarily informational or primarily controlling. This application is very important in schools because rewards and communications are essential parts of educational systems.

35 以掌握为导向和以表现为导向
Mastery orientation is described as a student’s wish to become proficient in a topic to the best of his or her ability. The student’s sense of satisfaction with the work is not influenced by external performance indicators such as grades. Mastery orientation is associated with deeper engagement with the task and greater perseverance in the face of setbacks. Mastery orientation is thought to increase a student’s intrinsic motivation.
Performance orientation is described as a student’s wish to achieve highly on external indicators of success, such as grades. The students’ sense of satisfaction is highly influenced by their grades, and so it is associated with discouragement in the face of low marks. Performance orientation is also associated with higher states of anxiety. In addition, the desire for high marks increases the temptation to cheat or to engage in shallow rote-learning instead of deep understanding. Performance orientation is thought to increase a student’s intrinsic motivation if they perform well, but to decrease motivation when they perform badly.

36 任务导向和自我导向
A student is described as task-involved when they are interested in the task for its own qualities. This is associated with higher intrinsic motivation. Task-involved students are less threatened by failure because their own ego is not tied up in the success of the task.

A student who is ego-involved will be seeking to perform the task to boost their own ego, for the praise that completing the task might attract, or because completing the task confirms their own self-concept (e.g, clever, strong, funny etc.). Ego-involved students can become very anxious or discouraged in the face of failure, because such failure challenges their self-concept.

37 学习兴趣下降与学习动机
Inquisitive and self-directed learning is a natural behavior for young children. They marvel at each new discovery and strive to understand the meaning behind every question in their world. However, older children seem to be resistant to learning unless directed by teachers or parents with various forms of external recognition. Their enthusiasm and inner desire for understanding has diminished. Learning, to older children has become directly connected to demands, controls, and rewards.
In order to understand why this attitude toward learning develops, the concept of motivation in education must be defined and examined in a theoretical sense. Motivation is an essential condition of learning. A motivating condition may be defined as an emotion, desire, physiological need, or similar impulse that acts as an incitement to action. Ray comments that motivation in education is concerned with students’ motivation to learn.
With the understanding of these defined concepts in hand, we can begin to examine the reasons behind school age children losing their enthusiasm for learning. In order to comprehend the reason for the undermining of this intrinsic behavior, we must acknowledge the basic theories of motivation from an eclectic standpoint. By embracing the concepts of learning from both a behaviorist and cognitive point of view, a teacher can tailor the use of reinforcement in the classroom to commit the students to achieving academic excellence with enthusiasm and devotion.

38 想象力的概念
Imagination is the ability to form mental images, or the ability to spontaneously generate images within one’s own mind. It helps provide meaning to experience and understanding to knowledge; it is a fundamental facility through which people make sense of the world, and it also plays a key role in the learning process. A basic training for imagination is the listening to storytelling(narrative), in which the exactness of the chosen words is the fundamental factor to “evoke worlds”.
It is accepted as the innate ability and process to invent partial or complete personal realms within the mind from elements derived from sense perceptions of the shared world. The term is technically used in psychology for the process of reviving in the mind percepts of objects formerly given in sense perception. Since this use of the term conflicts with that of ordinary language, somepsychologists have preferred to describe this process as “imaging” or “imagery” or to speak of it as “reproductive” as opposed to “productive” or “constructive” imagination. Imagined images are seen with the “mind’s eye”.
One hypothesis for the evolution of human imagination is that it allowed conscious beings to solve problems (and hence increase an individual’s fitness) by use of mental simulation.

39 想象力概述

The common use of the term “imagination” is for the process of forming in the mind new imageswhich have not been previously experienced, or at least only partially or in different combinations. Some typical examples are fairy tale and fiction.
A form of verisimilitude often invoked in fantasy and science fiction invites readers to pretend such stories are true by referring to objects of the mind such as fictional books or years that do not exist apart from an imaginary world.

Imagination in this sense, not being limited to the acquisition of exact knowledge by the requirements of practical necessity, is, up to a certain point, free from objective restraints. The ability to imagine one’s self in another person’s place is very important to social relations and understanding. (Some psychiatrists suspect this is beyond the grasp of a sociopath. All they know is the gratification of personal pleasure).

In various spheres, however, even imagination is in practice limited: thus a man whose imaginations do violence to the elementary laws of thought, or to the necessary principles of practical possibility, or to the reasonable probabilities of a given case is regarded as insane.

40 想象力和科学假设
The same limitations beset imagination in the field of scientific hypothesis. Progress in scientific research is due largely to provisional explanations which are constructed by imagination, but such hypotheses must be framed in relation to previously ascertained facts and in accordance with the principles of the particular science.
Imagination is an experimental partition of the mind used to create theories and ideas based on functions. Taking objects from real perceptions, the imagination uses complex IF-functions to create new or revised ideas. This part of the mind is vital to developing better and easier ways to accomplish old and new tasks. These experimented ideas can be safely conducted inside a virtual world and then, if the idea is probable, and the function is true, the idea can be actualized in reality. Imagination is the key to new development of the mind and can be shared with others, progressing collectively.

41 科学假设的五大内涵
People refer to a trial solution to a problem as a hypothesis—often called an “educated guess”—because it provides a suggested solution based on the evidence. Experimenters may test and reject several hypotheses before solving the problem.
According to Schick and Vaughn, researchers weighing up alternative hypotheses may take into consideration:

Testability (compare falsifiability as discussed above)

Simplicity (as in the application of “Occam’s Razor”, discouraging the postulation of

excessive numbers of entities)

Scope—the apparent application of the hypothesis to multiple cases of phenomena

Fruitfulness—the prospect that a hypothesis may explain further phenomena in the future

Conservatism—the degree of “fit” with existing recognized knowledge-systems

42 想象力和信仰之间的区别
Imagination differs fundamentally from belief because the subject understands that what is personally invented by the mind does not necessarily impact the course of action taken in the

apparently shared world while beliefs are part of what one holds as truths about both the shared and personal worlds. The play of imagination, apart from the obvious limitations (e.g. of avoiding explicit self-contradiction), is conditioned only by the general trend of the mind at a given moment. Belief, on the other hand, is immediately related to practical activity: it is perfectly possible to imagine oneself a millionaire, but unless one believes it one does not, therefore, act as such. Belief endeavors to conform to the subject’s experienced conditions or faith in the possibility of those conditions; whereas imagination as such is specifically free. The dividing line between imagination and belief varies widely in different stages of technological development. Thus someone from a primitive culture who is ill frames an ideal reconstruction of the causes of his illness, and attributes it to the hostile magic of an enemy based on faith and tradition rather than science. In ignorance of the science of pathology the subject is satisfied with this explanation, and actually believes in it, sometimes to the point of death, due to what is known as the placebo effect.

43 好奇心的定义及其起因
In essence, “curiosity” is a term that describes an unknown number of behavioral andpsychological mechanisms that have the effect of impelling beings to seek information and interaction with their natural environment and with other beings in their vicinity.
Curiosity is an innate capability of many living beings, but it can not be subsumed under category of instinct because it lacks the quality of fixed action pattern; it is rather one of innate basic emotions because it can be expressed in many flexible ways while instinct is always expressed in a fixed way, and like any innate capability it confers a survival advantage to certain species, and can be found in their genomes.

44 如何开始有效学习
Many students find it hard to start working or work for too long when they do. If one finds himself avoiding starting work or seemingly finding ways out of studying then he should try to start studying for short periods of 10-15 minutes on a regular basis. This, if done properly, can help ease one into interrupting your normal daily routine enough to actually get some work done. When one finds that one can sit and concentrate (which are skills that need to be warmed up by this process as well) for longer periods then changing to a full study routine is possible.
If one finds that one studies for too long a time, then it can seem much more of a chore than it really has to be. Even students who really enjoy their subject can end up resenting the amount of work they have to do if they fall into ineffective study patterns. If this happens one may begin to fall into the avoiding-starting-to-study pattern.

45 学习方法: 非正式学习和正式学习
Informal learning occurs through the experience of day-to-day situations(for example, one would learn to look ahead while walking because of the danger inherent in not paying attention to where one is going). It is learning from life, during a meal at table with parents, play, exploring.
Formal learning is learning that takes place within a teacher-student relationship, such as in a school system.
Non-formal learning is organized learning outside the formal learning system. For example: learning by coming together with people with similar interests and exchanging viewpoints, in clubs or in (international) youth organizations, workshops.

The educational system may use a combination of formal, informal, and non-formal learning methods. The UN and EU recognize these different forms of learning. In some schools students can get points that count in the formal-learning systems if they get work done in informal-learning circuits. They may be given time to assist international youth workshops and training courses, on the condition they prepare, contribute, share and can proof this offered valuable new insights, helped to acquire new skills, a place to get experience in organizing, teaching, etc.

46 八大关键学习方法
Some key study skills include:

Removing distractions and improving concentration

Maintaining a balance between homework and other activities

Reducing stress, such as that caused by test anxiety

Strategies for writing essays

Speed reading

Note-taking

Subject-specific study strategies

Preparing for exams

47 学习技能的五大方法
In order to learn a skill, such as solving a Rubik’s cube quickly, several factors come into play at once:

Directions help one learn the patterns of solving a Rubik’s cube.

Practicing the moves repeatedly and for extended time helps with “muscle memory” and

therefore speed.
3. Thinking critically about moves helps find shortcuts, which in turn helps to speed up future attempts.

The Rubik’s cube’s six colors help anchor solving it within the head.

Occasionally revisiting the cube helps prevent loss of skill.

48 自我满意度与学习动力
Research on learning has indicated that in certain circumstances, having less self-efficacy for a subject may be helpful, while more negative attitudes towards how quickly/well one will learn, can actually prove of benefit. One study uses the foreign language classroom to examine students’beliefs about learning, perceptions of goal attainment, and motivation to continue language study. Survey and interview results indicated students’ attributions for success and failure and their expectations for certain subjects’ learning ability played a role in the relationship between goal attainment and volition. It appears that over-efficaciousness negatively affected student motivation. For other students who felt they were “bad at languages,” their negative beliefs increased their motivation to study.