14 希腊文明与艺术形式
Greek civilization placed much more importance on individuals, rather than on a single king or God. Greece was broken up into City States and ruled by a number of politicians, much like our present concept of democracy. The religion of the time was polytheistic, but because of the separation of the City States, it never developed the structure of the proceeding Egyptian religion. The Greeks used their religion to illuminate their own lives, rather than to give them divine guidance. They turned to art and literature, rather than prayer, as a means of trying to discover themselves. This emphasis on self spawned new beliefs about man’s order in the universe. Contrary to Egyptian beliefs, the Greeks did not see their Gods as the center universe, and believed that they as humans had some control over their own destiny. The freedom to explore the self allowed the Greeks to make advances in mathematics, philosophy, and art. The advances in philosophy and mathematics had direct influence on the art of the time. This is first seen in the Protogeometric and Geometric art of the first three centuries of Greek civilizations. These unique styles show a meticulous order and precision that was not seen in any proceeding period. As the dominant style changed from Protogeometric to Geometric, this order and precision was amplified. The popular circle and semicircle patterns were replaced by linear designs, zigzags, triangles, diamonds, and meanders. The increased interest in order seems to have been a reflection of the Greek fascination with nature, and man’s relationship to nature. This interest in the order of nature eventually evolved into a fascination with the human form and the idea of human perfection.

15 艺术评论
Art criticism is the discussion or evaluation of visual art. Art critics usually criticize art in the context of aesthetics or the theory of beauty. One of criticism’s goals is the pursuit of a rational basis for art appreciation.
The variety of artistic movements has resulted in a division of art criticism into different disciplines, each using vastly different criteria for their judgments. The most common division in the field of criticism is between historical criticism and evaluation, a form of art history, and contemporary criticism of work by living artists.

16 艺术历史与艺术评论和艺术理论

As a discipline, art history is distinguished from art criticism, which is concerned with establishing a relative artistic value upon individual works with respect to others of comparable style, or sanctioning an entire style or movement; and art theory, which is concerned with the fundamental nature of art, and is more related to aesthetics investigating the enigma of the sublime and determining the essence of beauty, i.e., artistic appeal. Technically, art history is not these things, because the art historian uses historical method to answers the questions: How did the artist come to create the work? Who were the patrons? Who were his or her teachers? Who was the audience? Who were his or her disciples? What historical forces shaped the artist’s oeuvre and how did he or she and the creation, in turn, affect the course of artistic, political, and social events?

17 艺术评论受到时间的考验
Despite perceptions that art criticism is a much lower risk activity than making art, opinions of current art are always liable to drastic corrections with the passage of time. Critics of the past are often ridiculed for either favoring artists now derided (like the academic painters of the late 19th Century) or dismissing artists now venerated (like the early work of the Impressionists). Some art movements themselves were named disparagingly by critics, with the name later adopted as a sort of badge of honor by the artists of the style (e.g. Impressionism, cubism), the original negative meaning forgotten.
Some critics are unable to adapt to new movements in art and allow their opinions to override their objectivity, resulting in inappropriately dated critique. John Ruskin famously compared one of James McNeill Whistler’s paintings, Nocturne in Black and Gold: The Falling Rocket, to“flinging a pot of paint in the public’s face”.
Artists have often had an uneasy relationship with their critics. Artists usually need positive opinions from critics for their work to be viewed and purchased; unfortunately for the artists, only later generations may understand it.

18 文学评论
Literary criticism is the study, discussion, evaluation, and interpretation of literature. Modern literary criticism is often informed by literary theory, which is the philosophical discussion of its methods and goals. Though the two activities are closely related, literary critics are not always, and have not always been, theorists.
Whether or not literary criticism should be considered a separate field of inquiry from literary theory, or conversely from book reviewing, is a matter of some controversy. For example, the Johns Hopkins, Guide to Literary Theory and Criticism draws no distinction between literary theory and literary criticism, and almost always uses them together to describe the same concept. Some critics consider literary criticism a practical application of literary theory, as criticism always deals directly with a literary work, albeit from a theoretical point of view.
Modern literary criticism is often published in essay or book form. Academic literary critics teach in literature departments and publish in academic journals, and more popular critics publish their criticism in broadly circulating periodicals such as New York Times Book Review, New York Review of Books, London Review of Books, Nation, and The New Yorker.

19 文学评论现状
Today interest in literary theory and Continental philosophy coexists in university literature departments with a more conservative literary criticism of which the New Critics would probably have approved. Acrimonious disagreements over the goals and methods of literary criticism, which characterized both sides taken by critics during the “rise” of theory, have declined(though they still happen), and many critics feel that they now have a great plurality of methods and approaches from which to choose.

Some critics work largely with theoretical texts, while others read traditional literature; interest in the literary canon is still great, but many critics are also interested in minority and women’s literatures, while some critics influenced by cultural studies read popular texts like comic books or pulp/genre fiction. Ecocritics have drawn connections between literature and the natural sciences. Many literary critics also work in film criticism or media studies. Some write intellectual history; others bring the results and methods of social history to bear on reading literature.

20 文学的哲学
Strictly speaking, the philosophy of literature is a branch of aesthetics, the branch of philosophythat deals with the question, “what is art?” Much of aesthetic philosophy has traditionally focusedon the plastic arts or music, however, at the expense of the verbal arts. In fact, much traditional discussion of aesthetic philosophy seeks to establish criteria of artistic quality that are indifferent to the subject matter being depicted. Since all literary works, almost by definition, contain notional content, aesthetic theories that rely on purely formal qualities tend to overlook literature. The very existence of narrative raises philosophical issues. In narrative, a creator can embody, and readers be led to imagine, fictional characters, and even fantastic creatures or technologies. The ability of the human mind to imagine, and even to experience empathy with, these fictional characters is itself revealing about the nature of the human mind. Some fiction can be thought of as a sort of a thought experiment in ethics: they describe fictional characters, their motives, their actions, and the consequences of their actions. It is in this light that some philosophers have chosen various narrative forms to teach their philosophy.

21 文学理论分类
Since theorists of literature often draw on a very heterogeneous tradition of Continental philosophy and the philosophy of language, any classification of their approaches is only anapproximation. There are many “schools” or types of literary theory, which take different approaches to understanding texts. Most theorists, even among those listed below, combine methods from more than one of these approaches (for instance, the deconstructive approach of Paul de Man drew on a long tradition of close reading pioneered by the New Critics, and de Man was trained in the European hermeneutic tradition).
Broad schools of theory that have historically been important include the New Criticism, formalism, Russian formalism, and structuralism, post-structuralism, Marxism, feminism and French feminism, Christian, post-colonialism, new historicism, deconstruction, reader-response criticism, and psychoanalytic criticism.

22 文学理论和文学
One of the fundamental questions of literary theory is “What is literature?”, though many contemporary theorists and literary scholars believe either that “literature” cannot be defined orthat it can refer to any use of language. Specific theories are distinguished not only by their methods and conclusions, but even by how they define a “text”. For some scholars of literature, “texts” comprises little more than “books belonging to the Western literary canon.” But theprinciples and methods of literary theory have been applied to non-fiction, popular fiction, film, historical documents, law, advertising, etc., in the related field of cultural studies. In fact, some scholars within cultural studies treat cultural events, like fashion or football riots, as “texts” to beinterpreted. By this measure, literary theory can be thought of as the general theory of interpretation.

23 艺术心理学的发展
Art psychology developed in opposition to 19th century philosophical aesthetics which approached art by first asking about beauty and metaphysics. For most art psychologists, beauty is culturally or socially contingent. Art psychology was, however, also developed initially in opposition to Husserlian phenomenology which made no normative judgments about meaning. Most branches of art psychology emphasize the primacy of consciousness, but there are variants which engage the question of the subconscious. Generally speaking, however, those interested in the psychology of art express optimism about art and its meanings that moves them away from the concepts discussed by Freud.

24 艺术心理学及其三大原则
In the narrow sense, there is no discipline “the psychology of art”, for unlike other branches ofpsychology, with their numerous academies and research programs, there are few Psychology of Art programs in the universities. Nonetheless, the literature on the topic is extensive, given that the issues addressed by art psychology have attracted both professional psychologists as well as non-professionals; it has attracted those who write about the arts, including music and architecture, and those who produce it.
The general principles that guide most of the work in art psychology are:
1. that art is perceptual and that it can thus be studied by asking questions about our perceptions;
2. that art operates in a cultural continuum and that one can come to terms with the continuum through analysis of art;
3. that the production of art is a meaningful enterprise and as such is an important avenue by which one comes to terms with human creativity.

25 艺术与科学联系紧密
Although art is viewed as a flowery pastime by most people, it can be seen in artistic discovery and advancements, through the recreation and entertainment that most people enjoy today, and through the lives and works of those we consider to be artists that art is amazingly concerned with science. The development of art forms such as photography was made possible because of scientific discoveries. The earliest photograph is attributed to Joseph-Nicephore Niepce. Although his first photograph was no where near as clear and glossy as what we would consider to be a photograph, his scientific discovery allowed for further development in the area. Robert Kunzig writes Niepce used particles of asphalt, hardened by the sun and rinsed in lavender oil to capture his pictures. Invented in 1824, Niepce’s camera had to be opened to the sun for at least eight hours(and sometimes as long as two full days) to expose its asphalt film. In the late 1830s,

Louis-Jacques-Mande Daguerre’s use of silver halide emulsions and development cut that time down to less than half an hour.
Without scientists and their interest in creating and discovery, the art world today would be missing out on all sorts of creative outlets like photography.

26 艺术和科学对教育的重要性
It is not solely important to be an expert in one area, but almost necessary to be accomplished in as many different things as possible to truly understand the nature of anything. When schools deny children the opportunities to study art, music, and other creative outlets they are denying the children the opportunity to develop in all areas. The basic academic areas of English, history, math, and science are jam packed with all sorts of artistic opportunities. Art like science allows people to create. Writing and English allow people to express their thoughts. Music and math allow people to break down, add up and explain other areas of life. History is the greatest reflection of man kind’s art and creation throughout the years. One area of study can not make such as large impact as they can all together. It is a shame to deny anyone the opportunity to cultivate an intense amount of information, in effect limiting the impact they can make on society. If the budget does not allow for extra classes such as music and art the answer is not to eliminate these areas from the curriculum all together, but rather integrate them into other subject areas. Where would we be if the great people of our history had not been Renaissance men?